A. Put the words in the following sentences in the correct order.
l) have how we to do many write compositions?
2) with you help needn’t the shopping.
3) needn’t you gone much to so have trouble.
4) to just I’ve got pass.
5) to you often have do weekend study at the?
6) are how words write we to many supposed?
7) mustn’t ink use you.
8) draft to we need do write a?
9) fill do have to up I?
10) you what it supposed do think is be to?
B. Now match each of the sentences above to an appropriate response below. Write the number of the sentence in the gap.
a. Between 120 and 180.
b. I know, but I’d like to.
c. What am I supposed to write with then?
d. Don’t worry. I’m sure you will.
e. The letter from Part 1 and another question from Part 2.
f. Yes, I’m afraid I do
g. It was a pleasure.
h. No, we have enough petrol.
i. No, but you should always plan your work before you start to write.
j. I have no idea. Maybe the sun.
Exercise 8.Choose the best form.
1. We ....... win, but I don’t think there’s much chance. (may, might)
2. That ....... be her daughter – they’re nearly the same age. (can’t, mustn’t)
3. You absolutely ..... go and see Liz. (should, must)
4. I think you .......... try to relax more. (should, must)
5. You ............ pass a special exam to be a teacher. (must, have to)
6. In this country boys ......... do military service. (must not, don’t have to)
7. When I was 18 we ...... two years in the army (had to do, must have done)
8. She ..... very quietly – I didn’t hear her go. (had to leave, must have left)
9. You ....... get in without a ticket – not a chance. (may not. can’t)
10. At what age .......... you get a driving license? (can, may)
Exercise 9. Do you know the English words for nationalities and languages? Complete the sentences; use a dictionary to help you.
1. The people who live in .............. speak Greek.
2. The language that people speak in Hungary is called .................
3. The language ............ people speak in China is called .........…...
4. The people who live in ........... speak Italian.
5. The ............ live in .......... ............ Turkish.
6. The language ................. Algeria is called Arabic.
7. The people .................... Holland .......... .................
8. The language ............ ............. ............Irish.
9. The people ........... Portugal ........... ...........
10. ........... ............ Japan ….......... ............... .
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Exercise 10. Transform the sentences to the passive:
1. They owe a lot of money to the bank.
2. You can buy videos like this one anywhere.
3. Someone has to write the history of the European Community one day.
4. Someone may have already written the history of the European Community.
5. When we arrived home, we found that someone had broken one of our windows.
6. They have sold their car to pay their debts.
7. The manager always welcomes new employees.
8. They are building a new supermarket near the church.
9. They fought the battle in i623.
10. Someone was cleaning the windows while I was there.
11. Someone has moved my desk!
12. They are taking the refugees to a camp outside the village.
13. Someone has singed all the documents before I arrived.
14. They were questioning us and searching our vehicle at the same time.
15. They will post our letters when the ship arrives at the next port of call.
16. They are opening the case again because they’re not satisfied with the verdict.
17. Have you changed anything?
18. How soon will they repeat that TV program?
19. Have you prepared all the documents?
20. Have the tested all the machines?
Exercise 11. Put the right form of infinitive (with or without to).
1. I’ve never been to Italy but I’d like ………. there. (go)
2. I’m in a difficult position. What do you advise me ……………? (do)
3. She said the letter was personal and wouldn’t let me …………. it. (read)
4. The customs officer made Sally ……….. her case. (open)
5. We were kept at the police station for two hours and then we were allowed … (go)
6. Hot weather makes me …………. tired. (feel)
7. Where would you recommend me ……….. for my holidays? (go)
8. The film was very sad. It made me ……….. (cry)
9. Carol’s parents always encouraged her …………. hard at school. (study)
10. Let me ………… your bag for you. (carry)
11. Her parents wouldn’t let her ………… out alone. (go)
WRITING
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1. Describe the characteristics of the succeeding generations of computer programming languages.
2. Describe the differences between machine languages, assembly languages and high-level languages.
3. Name four common high-level programming languages.
4. Today programming methods are undergoing changes. New fourth-generation languages, fifth-generation languages and object-oriented programming methods are now in use. Describe the differences in these programming approaches.
UNIT 14
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
Vocabulary Bank Unit 14
Task1. Read and learn the basic vocabulary terms.
1. analyst (n)
2. artificial
3. artificial intelligence
4. browse
5. bundle (v)
6. clarify (v)
7. coding
8. decision tables
9. direct implementation
10. diverse (adj)
11. documentation
12. encapsulation
13. encapsulation (n)
14. executable modules
15. feasibility (n)
16. fetch (v)
17. flowchart (n)
18. implementation (n)
19. Information systems
20. inheritance
21. intelligence
22. iteration (n)
23. label
24. loop (n)
25. loop instruction
26. maintain (v)
27. markup (adj, n)
28. markup language
29. modify (v)
30. network system
31. pilot implementation
32. polymorphism,
33. polymorphys
34. pseudocode (n)
35. repeatedly (adv)
36. sequence (n)
37. software engineering
38. specification (n)
39. sticky (adv)
40. systems analyst
41. tag codes
42. testing and adapting
Reading activity
TEXT 14A. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
Software engineering is the discipline of designing high quality software solutions. Software consists of programs (sets of instructions for controlling a computer) and data (the material that has to be processed). Programs are written in computer languages by people called programmers. A systems analyst is a person who designs or modifies information systems to meet users' requirements. This includes investigating feasibility and cost, producing documentation, and testing prototypes of the system. Producing a program, therefore, involves a number of stages including:
a) clarifying the problem by considering the requirements of the potential users
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b) designing the solution to the problem by first deciding on the overall structure of the solution
c) coding the program by first choosing an appropriate programming language and inputting the program code
d) testing and debugging the program (identifying and fixing any problems or faults in the program code)
e) documenting and maintaining the program including writing instructions for using the program.
Systems analysts first need to talk to the people involved in the computing problem, including the people managing the system and the users or potential users of the system. They need to establish factors such as:
a) the nature of the problem
b) what systems already exist
c) to what extent any existing systems are computerised (changed so that they can be operated or controlled using a computer)
d) what output (the processed data or signals that come out of a computer system) will be required from the system
e) who will be using the system and what parts of the system they need to be able to use
f) the computing experience of the staff and what training would be required
g) what hardware (the physical components of a computer system) already exists and what would need to be added, including the specification of the hardware and whether a network system is required (a system where a number of computers and peripheral devices are connected together).
They then have to plan the structure of the solution and check it through with the people involved to make sure it meets their requirements. Next, they have to choose a suitable programming language and write the program (a set of instructions, written in a computer language, that control the behaviour of a computer), continually testing and adapting it until it works to the satisfaction of the customer and users. The system then has to be put into service and the users have to be trained. This involves documenting the program specifications and writing instructions for using the system.
Programming languages commonly use different structures for sequencing program instructions, including:
- conditional instructions i.e. if a certain condition is true, then process this instruction (if X then Y). Decision tables are used to indicate how a conditional structure will process data. They show all the different inputs that might arise for each condition and the resulting outputs that would be produced by the conditional instruction.
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- iterations or loop instructions i.e. process these instructions repeatedly until or while a particular condition is true, or false (do ... until... or do ... while ...).
Program flowcharts can be used to show the sequence of instructions in a program and are sometimes used for designing parts of programs such as iterations. Pseudocode is a method of writing a description of a computer program using a mixture of natural language and computer language code.
There are a large number of computer languages available for use by programmers. Each language is designed for use in solving particular types of problem and therefore has particular strengths and weaknesses. A systems analyst has to decide which language is most appropriate in each situation. Languages such as C++ are particularly suitable for writing systems programs (programs that are used to control the basic functions of a computer system e.g. operating system programs). Languages such as Visual Basic and Pascal are easy to use and are particularly suitable for learning how to program. FORTRAN is designed for solving engineering problems, COBOL for writing business programs, Ada for military purposes, Prolog and LISP for working in artificial intelligence (an area of computing concerned with developing computer programs that perform tasks that can normally only be done using human intelligence). Logo is particularly suited for use by young children. Some languages such as HTML and XML are markup languages rather than programming languages i.e. they use tag codes (labels) for marking text for use in programs such as Web browsers. Languages such as Java and Perl have a number of specialised uses including adding features to Internet connections and webpages (hyperlinked documents).
Converting to new computer systems can be done in different ways. Each strategy has its advantages and disadvantages. These include:
a) direct implementation where the old system is simply removed and the new system installed. In this strategy only one system is used at any one time but there is no fall back (alternative system that can be used if problems occur in the main system) if the new system does not operate properly.
b) parallel implementation where the old and the new systems are both used at the same time until the users are satisfied that the new system is working properly. The advantage is that if the new system does not operate properly, the old system is available as a fallback. The disadvantage is that two systems have to be maintained.
c) phased implementation where the old system is gradually replaced by the new system, one part at a time. The advantage is that people can gradually get used to the new system and certain problems can be dealt with as they arise. The disadvantage is that this method is more complex and time-consuming. In addition, there may be problems of incompatibility between the old and new systems.
d) pilot implementation where the new system is tried out in one section of the company to make sure that it works as required. The advantage is that problems can be identified and solved before the new system is implemented throughout the company. The disadvantage is that it takes longer to introduce the new system.
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