Task 14. Find the equivalents from the text.
Система обробки інформації комп'ютером; система орієнтування на обробку даних комп'ютером; поєднувати можливості людини і машини; обмежувати управління; навряд чи допустять помилку; залишатися вразливим; неприпустимі дані; легкість здійснення зв'язку; мережа передачі інформації; системи, засновані на використанні супутників; отримати миттєву відповідь; наводити довідки; сховище даних; корпоративна база даних; обсяг пам'яті; запам'ятовувати величезну кількість інформації; витягувати інформацію; додати значимості; згаданий вище; частка секунди; схильний до помилок.
Task 15. Translate the words.
То eliminate: elimination; eliminable; eliminator; unlimited.
To respond: respondent; response; responsible; irresponsible; responsibility.
Accuracy: inaccuracy; accurate; inaccurate; accurately.
Correctly: correct; incorrect; to correct; correction; correctional; corrective; corrector.
Vulnerable: invulnerable; vulnerability; invulnerability.
Invalid: valid; invalidity; validity;
Access: accessible; inaccessible; accessibility; inaccessibility.
GRAMMAR REVIEW
The Modal Verbs (MV)
CAN/COULD
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns | ||
| 1. Ability, capability | can (can’t) – the Present Tense could (couldn’t) – the Past Tense | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative negative | to be able to, to know how to do smth, to have the ability to do smth. | He can perform complicated operations. He is a very skilful surgeon. Can she swim well? He could not feel or hear anything. | ||
| 2. Possibility due to circumstances | can (can’t) – the Present Tense could (couldn’t) – the Past Tense | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative negative | to be able to, it’s possible to do smth | At a chemist’s shop you can get medicines of all kinds. I can go to the seaside this summer if I have enough money. | ||
| 3. a)Permission b) Request c)Prohibition | can – the Present Tense could – the Past Tense in Reported Speech can could (a polite request) can’t | Indefinite Infinitive Indefinite Infinitive Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative negative | to permit, to be allowed | The doctor said: “You can take long walks early in the morning” Can (could) you give me some medicine for my headache? You can’t visit him, he has an infectious disease. | ||
| 4. Unreality | could – the Subjunctive II Form | The Indefinite Infinitive refers the action to the present or future. The Perfect Infinitive indicates the action which was not carried out in the past | affirmative interrogative negative | would be able to do smth; would have been able to do smth | Why don’t you want the doctor to come? He could prescribe some medicine to bring down the fever (if he came). You could have stayed in bed for a few days. But you didn’t. | ||
| 5. Uncertainty, doubt, astonishment
| can/could | The Indefinite Infinitive refers the action to the present or future.
The Continuous Infinitive refers the action to the present. The Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the past. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking | interrogative (general questions) | Is it possible that … ? Do you believe that …? | Can (could) he be her husband? He is twice as old as she is. | ||
| Can (could) she still be running a high temperature? Can (could) he have been operated on? Can (could) they have been keeping to a diet for a few years? | |||||||
| 6. Incredulity, improbability | can’ t/ couldn’ t | Indefinite Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Perfect Continuous Infinitive | negative | It’s hardly possible that; I refuse to believe that; I don’t think it’s possible that; it’s next to impossible that; I don’t believe that; I doubt that; It’s incredible (doubtful) that | He can’t (couldn’t) be her husband. She can’t (couldn’t) be still running a high temperature. He can’t (couldn’t) have been operated on. They can’t (couldn’t) have been keeping to a diet for a few years. | ||
| 7. For emotional colouring | can/could (in present time contexts) | Indefinite Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Perfect Continuous Infinitive | interrogative (special questions) | What can (could) you know of such things? What can (could) they be speaking about? How can (could) you have made such a mistake? What can (could) he have been doing all this time? |
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| Notes |
| I. Remember the following set phrases with the verb can: 1. CAN’T/COULDN’T + HELP + DOING smth e.g.: She can’t help crying. – Вона не може не плакати. 2. CAN’T/COULDN’T +BUT + INFINITIVE (without “to”) e.g.: I can’t but ask about it. – Мені нічого іншого не залишається, як запитати вас про це. They couldn’t but refuse him. – Їм нічого іншого не залишається, як відмовити йому. |
| II. The Ukrainian sentences of the type “Не вже він не помітив вас? Не може бути, щоб він не помітив вас. Не вже йому тут не подобається? Не може б ути, щоб йому тут не подобалось” are rendered in English in the following ways: 1. Can (could) he have failed to notice you? 2. Can (could) he dislike it here? 3. Can (could) nobody have seen him do it? 4. Can (could) he have never got my letter? 5. Can (could) it be that he didn’t notice you? 6. He can’t (couldn’t) have failed to notice you. 7. He can’t (couldn’t) dislike it here. |
MAY/MIGHT
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| 1. a) Permission b) Request c) Prohibition | a) may – the Present Tense b) might – the Past Tense a) may – the Present Tense b) might – the Past Tense c) might – the Subjunctive II Form may not | Indefinite Infinitive Indefinite Infinitive Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative negative | to be permitted, to be allowed | a) I have got two historical novels. So you may take one of them. b) Mother said you might take some oranges. a) May I see him in the hospital on Tuesday? b) He asked me if he might rest for an hour. c) Might I spend the weekend with you? - May I have a look at the picture? - No, you may not. I don’t want you to. |
| 2. Possibility due to circumstances | a) may – the Present Tense b) might – the Past Tense | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative | a) Let’s meet at five o’clock at the post-office if the place and time are convenient to everybody. We may get there by bus. b) He said he might get to work by the Metro. | |
| 3. Unreality | might – the Subjunctive II Form | Perfect Infinitive | affirmative | If he had arrived an hour earlier, he might have had a good night’ rest. Luckily I didn’t join them in their walk. It was very windy and I might have caught cold. | |
| 4. Disapproval or reproach | might – the Subjunctive II Form | Indefinite Infinitive Perfect Infinitive | affirmative | Your child is shivering with cold. You might be more attentive to him. Tell him to put on his jacket. You answered his invitation with cold refusal. You might have invited me to this lecture. | |
| 5. Supposition implying uncertainty, doubt | may/might | Indefinite Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Perfect Continuous Infinitive | affirmative negative | She looks pale. She may (might) be ill, but I think she may/might not have a high temperature. I think the doctor may/might be examining the patient now. Nick is missing today. He may/might have been taken ill. She may have been staying in bed for a week. |
NEED
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| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns | ||
| 1. Necessity | need | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative (not typical) interrogative | necessary | Need I answer the question? | ||
| 2. Absence of necessity | needn’t | 1. Indefinite Infinitive 2. Perfect Infinitive (expresses an action which was performed though it was necessary) | negative | There is no need to do it. It’s not necessary to do it. There is no necessity to do it. | The teacher needn’t explain such simple things. The pupils know them. We needn’t have brought our grammar books today. We are having a class in phonetics instead. | ||
Notes
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| 1. When rendering in Russian “не нужно было” use “needn’t have done” to show that the action was performed though it was not necessary. Use “didn’t have to do” to indicate that the action was not performed as there was no obligation. e.g.: He needn’t have bought the book (but he did). It is available at the library. I didn’t have to buy the textbook (and I didn’t) as I had it at home. 2. In negative sentences negation is not always associated with the verb “need”, it may be found elsewhere in the sentence, e.g.: I don’t think we need continue our talk. They need hardly discuss the problem again. | |||||||
MUST
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| 1. Obligation, necessity with no freedom of choice or from the speaker’s point of view | must – in present or future time contexts; in past time contexts in Indirect Speech | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative | to be obliged to, it’s necessary for smb to do smth | If you have a new heart attack you must be taken to hospital. What must he do to keep feet? He said he must go to the dentist. |
| 2. Prohibition | mustn’t | Indefinite Infinitive | negative | to be forbidden | Students mustn’t stay away from classes without a good reason. |
| 3. Emphatic request or advice | must mustn’t | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative negative | You mustn’t miss this film. It’s worth seeing this film. You must drop in at the chemist’s on your way home. | |
| 4. Supposition implying assurance, strong probability | must | Indefinite Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Perfect Continuous Infinitive | only in the affirmative form in affirmative and negative sentences | probably, evidently, surely, no doubt, undoubtedly, it’s clear that, in all probability | He must be too old to wander about the city so long. They must be admiring the beautiful flowers in Hyde Park now. They must have been watching swans and ducks floating on the pond for an hous. She must have got used to their customs and traditions. |
| Notes |
| 1. Absence of necessity is expressed by “needn’t”. e.g.: Must I mention all those facts in my report? - Yes, you must. They are important. - No, you needn’t. They are of no use. 2. “Must” is not used in the negative form to express supposition implying assurance. This meaning is expressed by: a) Evidently (probably) they didn’t come to any agreement; b) They must have failed to come to any agreement; c) They must have misunderstood us; d) He must never have guessed the truth; e) No one must have told them the truth. 3. “Must” is not used with reference to the future. In this case its equivalents are used. e.g.: She is likely (unlikely) to come. |
TO HAVE (GOT) TO
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| 1. Obligation, necessity arising from circumstances | have (has) to; had to; shall/will have to; have (has) got to (in colloquial English), Do (does)… have to? Did … have to? Have (has) … got to…? (coll.) | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative | to be obliged to | If you don’t take care of yourself, you’ll have to consult a doctor. I wondered how long I had to stay in hospital. Do Russian people have to pay for medical care? Did you have to wait for us? Have I got to wake him up for the medicine? |
| 2. Absence of necessity | don’t (doesn’t) have to; didn’t have to; haven’t (hasn’t) got to | Indefinite Infinitive | negative | needn’t to | You don’t have to stay in here with me, if it bothers you. You haven’t got to be operated on, have you? |
| Notes |
| “didn’t have to do” indicates that the action was not performed as there was no obligation e.g.: He didn’t have to water the flowers (and he didn’t). It was raining all day long. |
TO BE TO
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| 1. Obligation arising out of a plan, an arrangement | am (is, are) to was (were) to | Indefinite Infinitive Perfect Infinitive (an unfulfilled plan) | affirmative interrogative | to plan; to make a plan; to arrange; to agree; to decide | Today I am to go to the post-office. When are you to go there? Yesterday I was to have gone to the post-office to send a parcel, but I wasn’t able to. (a planned action was not carried out) |
| 2. An order, an instruction | -||-||- | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative negative | If your letter contains anything valuable you are to register it. | |
| 3. Possibility | -||-||- | Indefinite Infinitive Passive | affirmative interrogative negative | A letter marked ‘Post Restante’ is to be left at the post-office until it is called for. Where are postal orders to be cashed? Such envelopes aren’t to be bought anywhere. | |
| 4. Something thought as unavoidable | -||-||- | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative negative | I didn’t know when I was to get a letter from her. I still hoped to get a letter from her, but it wasn’t to be. |
| Remember the following set phrases: 1. Where am I to go? – Куди я маю йти? 2. It’s to be hoped. – Потрібно сподіватися. 3. What am I to do? – Що я маю робити? 4. What is to become of me? – Що має зі мною бути? 5. When am I to be there? – О котрій я маю прийти? 6. Who is to begin? – Хто має починати? 7. Who’s to blame? – Хто винен? 8. What’s to be done? – Що потрібно робити? 9. He’s nowhere to be found. – Його не можна ніде знайти. 10. He is to be pitied. – Його потрібно пожаліти. 11. You are to be congratulated. – Ми маємо вас привітати. |
SHOULD/OUGHT TO
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| 1. Obligation weakened to the sense of advice, desirability | should shouldn’t Should I…? ought to oughtn’t to Ought I to…? | Indefinite Infinitive Continuous Infinitive The Perfect Infinitive indicates that a desirable action was not carried out (an undesirable action was not carried out). | affirmative interrogative negative | I advise you to… I advise you not to… I recommend you to do… I urge you to do… It is for you to do… I would advise you to do… | You ought to/should help your friend. He is in trouble. You should/ought to be getting ready for your report. You ought to/should have changed for the Underground. Gorky Street is far away from here. He oughtn’t to/shouldn’t have left London without visiting Hyde Park. |
| 2. Instructions, corrections | should shouldn’t Should I…? | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative negative | This preposition should be pronounced with a neutral sound in an unstressed position. You should take this medicine three times a day before your meals. | |
| 3. Disapproval, reproach for failing to do what was one’s duty or moral obligation | should shouldn’t ought to oughtn’t to | The Continuous Infinitive refers the action to the present. The Perfect Infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out. | affirmative negative | You ought to/should be speaking more clearly. You oughtn’t to/should have allowed him to go out so early after his illness. | |
| 4. Supposition implying probability | should shouldn’t ought to oughtn’t to | The Indefinite Infinitive refers the action to the present or future. The Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the past. | affirmative negative | Very likely he… It’s likely he… Most likely he… Very probably he… I think it is probable that…I expect he… Probably not… | This dish ought to/should be very delicious as it has been prepared by Mother. This dish is very delicious. It ought to/should have been prepared by Mother. |
| 5. Emotional colouring | Should I…? | Indefinite Infinitive | interrogative | Why should I? Why should you help him? How should you know? |
WILL/WOULD
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns | ||
| 1. Volition (willingness, readiness, consent, intention, determination) | I / We will (would) I / We won’t (wouldn’t) |
Indefinite Infinitive
| affirmative negative | I intend… I’m willing… We wish… We want… I’m determined… | I will tell him about your coming, so he can meet you. I’ve often spoken at public meetings but this time I won’t You may come if you will, but you won’t find the meeting amusing. I said I would take part in the conference. | ||
| 2. a) Persistence or refusal to perform an action. b) Refusal to perform an action with lifeless things | will (would) won’t (wouldn’t) won’t wouldn’t will (would) | affirmative negative | He insists…. She keeps on… She refuses… They continue… | The teacher scolds her for whispering at the lesson, but she will whisper. I asked him to tell me the truth, but he wouldn’t. I couldn’t explain anything because the words wouldn’t come. He tried hard to stop the car, but it would move. | |||
| 3. Requests (polite requests, polite invitations and suggestions) | will would | interrogative | Could you… May I ask you to give…? | Will you pass me the salt? Would you come to tea this afternoon? Will you have another cup of tea? | |||
| 4. Habitual or recurrent actions | will (the present tense) (not common) would (the past tense) (literary style) | affirmative | used to | That romantic girl will sit staring at the night sky. He would fish for hours without catching anything. | |||
| Notes | |||||||
| I. Remember the following set phrases: 1. would rather, would sooner. e.g.: I would rather do it myself. He would sooner die than do it. 2. Would you mind my staying here? I wouldn’t mind your joining us. II. “Will” may express supposition with reference to the present or future in combination with the indefinite infinitive, or to the past in combination with the perfect infinitive. This meaning is found with the 2nd and 3rd persons. e.g.: This will be the school, I believe. You will have heard the news, I’m sure. III. Notice the use of “will” in the following sentences: e.g.: Boys will be boys. Accidents will happen. You will find no greater wisdom than kindness. | |||||||
SHALL
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns | |
| 1. Asking for instruction | Shall I? Shall he (she, they)? |
Indefinite Infinitive
| interrogative | Must I do it? Do you want me to do it? Am I to do it? | Shall I read the article again? Shall he (she, they) start speaking on the topic? | |
| 2. Compulsion or strict order | You he she it they | shall shan’t | affirmative negative | I shall make him do it. I shall get you to do it. | You shall stop reading fiction books at your lectures. He shan’t prevent us from working at the problem. | |
| 3. Threat or warning | You he she it they | shall shan’t | affirmative negative | Tell him he shall be punished for his behaviour. You shall fail the exam if you don’t work hard. | ||
| 4. Promise | You he she it they | shall shan’t | affirmative negative | You are sure to get… I promise that they won’t punish you. | Don’t worry, you shall have a minute’s rest before the meeting begins. | |
DARE
| Meaning | Forms of the MV | Forms of the infinitive | Kinds of sentences | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| 1. Impertinence, to have the courage to do smth | dare do smth dared do smth | Indefinite Infinitive | affirmative interrogative | You dare address me in that tone! Did he dare to strike me when I was down? | |
| 2. Not to have courage to do smth | dared not do smth | negative | He didn’t dare to meet his uncle |
| Notes |
| 1. “I dare say” has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning “I suppose”. 2. It is used both: a) as an normal verb => taking the auxiliary “do” in the interrogative and negative forms, -s in the 3rd person singular and the to+ Infinitive b) as an anomalous verb => without the auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without –s in the 3rd person singular and with the bare Infinitive (without “to”) |
GRAMMAR EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Fill the following spaces, using “can” for present, “could” for past and “will be able” for future. There is no need to use other able form in this section. PutTO where necessary before the infinitives.
1. … you stand on your head? ~ I … when I was at school but I … now.
2. When I've passed my driving test I … hire a car from our local garage.
3. At the end of the month the Post Office will send him an enormous telephone bill which he … pay. (negative)
4. I … remember the address, (negative) ~ … you even remember the street? (negative)
5. When the fog lifts we … see where we are.
6. You've put too much in your rucksack; you never … carry all that.
7. When I was a child I … understand adults, and now that I am an adult I … understand children. (negative, negative)
8. When you have taken your degree you … put letters after your name.
9. Don't try to look at all the pictures in the gallery. Otherwise when you get home you … remember any of them. (negative)
10. When I first went to Spain I … read Spanish but I … speak it.
11. … you type?~ Yes, I … type but I … do shorthand.
12. I'm locked in. I … get out! (negative) ~ … you squeeze between the bars? (negative) ~ No! I …; I'm too fat. (negative)
Exercise 2.Fill in the blanks with the correct tense and form of “be able to” with the verb
In brackets.
1. Yesterday I (not walk) __wasn’t able to walk__ to school because I was sick.
2. If you work hard now, you (play) ____________________________ all next weekend.
3. I’m afraid I (not go) __________________________ with you to the doctor this evening.
4. They (understand) __________________________their neighbours now they speak Arabic.
5. Bob (buy) ______________________ that boat last week because he borrowed some money.
6. We (drive) _________________________ to the sea tomorrow in our new car.
7. My boss (not pay) ______________________me now because he hasn’t got any money.
8. I’m sorry, I (not find) _____________________ the book you wanted. It wasn’t in the shops.
9. I think I (speak) ___________________English quite well in a few months.
10. George has traveled a lot. He (speak) _________________________four languages.
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