Exercise 9 . Translate into English.

The pronoun is a part of speech which points out objects and their qualities without naming them.

Semantic classification

- personal: I, he, she, it, they; him, her, them

- possessive: my, his, her, its

- reflexive: myself, itself, ourselves

- emphatic: himself, herself, themselves

- reciprocal: each other, one another

- demonstrative: this, these, that, those, such, (the) same

- interrogative: who, what, which

- relative: who, whose, which, that, as

- defining: each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, all, either, both, other, another

- indefinite: some, any, somebody, anybody, something/anything, someone/anyone

- negative: no, none, neither, nobody, no one, nothing

- quantitative: many, much, few, little

We use object forms in such sentences: Who’s that? ~It’s me/us/them.

‘IT’: * in ‘cleft sentences’: It was Peter who drove us home.(not Paul) It was they/them who asked.

* when an infinitive is a subject of a sentence: It is easy to criticize. It is better to be easy.

* as a subject for impersonal verbs: it seems, it appears, it looks, it happens

Note! The coffee is too hot to drink it.

- possessive pronouns can replace possessive adjectives →  

- of mine = one of my: a friend of mine = one of my friends

- possessive adj. are used with clothes & parts of the body: He injured his back. BUT! If there is a preposition before a part of the body we put the article: I patted him on the back.

- possessive to ‘each other’: We wrote down each other’s telephone numbers.

- To add emphasis, own can be placed after my, your, his and one’s: her own idea, a room of one’s own. Note: I’m on my own = I’m alone

- some verbs (to bathe, to dress, to wash, to change clothes) are normally used without reflexive pronouns:

I got up, washed, dressed and went to school. BUT! When the action is difficult (for children or disabled) reflexive pronouns are used: Oh, look! Nicky has just dressed himself!

- after a preposition of place we use me, you, him, her: In the mirror I saw a lorry behind me. (NOT behind myself)

- fixed phrases: to feel good/bad (about mood); to feel well/unwell (about health) we use without myself!

to enjoy oneself; to teach oneself ;to find oneself;

Help yourself to something!Make yourself at home! to turn itself on /off

Note: He behaved badly. BUT Behave yourself!

Patterns: I grew these vegetables myself.   The house itself is small, but the garden is enormous.

           I’m not myself today.                    You told me about it yourself!

A pattern: When we went on holiday, we sent a lot of postcards to each other / one another.

Demonstrative

this/these

that/those

- people or things near us: This is my pen.

- present/future situation: I’m going away this weekend.

- to introduce people or on the phone: This is Ann.

these days → nowadays, now; this evening → tonight

- people or things not near us: I want those jeans from H&M.

- past situations: That was a holiday of a lifetime!

- to refer back to smth mentioned before:That’s what I meant!

on the phone: Who’s that?

Interrogative

In formal English we use preposition + whom:

With whom did you go?

In spoken English we usually move the preposition to the end of the sentence, with whom changing to who:

Who did you go with?

In formal English we use preposition + which/what:

To which address did you send it?

In spoken English we move the preposition to the end of the sentence:

Which address did you send it to?

which

what

- when there’s a limited choice we ask which:

Which size do you want – small, medium or large?

- when there is an unlimited choice we ask what:

What is your shoe size?

- before of & one we can use which, but not what: Which of the countries in Europe have you visited?

Which of you knows the answer? (NOT Who of you…)

what & how in questions about measurements

what

how

- what + age / depth / height / length / width

- what is a general interrogative used for things:

What makes that noise?

- What… for = ‘why’: What did you do that for?

- What+be…like?

What was the exam like? ~It was very difficult.

- What does he/she/it look like?

What does she look like? ~She’s tall and glamorous.

- What is he? = ‘What is his profession?’

What is his father? ~He is a tailor.

NOTE! What is it called? (NOT How is it called?)

What was the trip like? →

- How + old / deep / high / tall / long / wide

- to ask about manner

How did you get on in the exam? ~Quite well, I hope!

We ask questions with ‘how’ for:

- introductions:

How do you do? answered by How do you do?

- health: How are you? How have you been?

- personal reactions: How was the film?

- offers and suggestions: How about a drink? (= What about a drink?) How would you like to have lunch with us?

How was the trip?

Examples

1. The man who robbed you has been arrested.

2. Everyone who/that knew him liked him.

3. The man whom I saw told me to come back OR

The man who/that I saw… OR The man I saw…

4. The man to whom I spoke was 30. (formal)

The man (that/who/whom) I spoke to was 30. (inf.)

5. The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.

Defining

All or every?

All = a number of people or things considered as a group

Every = a number of people or things considered individually

Both = one and the other

Both+plural verbs: Both doors were open.

Both of + us/you/them: Both of us knew him.

Both … and … – как … так и …; и… и

He both acts and directs.

Each or every?

- each = a number of persons or things considered individually

Each man had a weapon = the speaker went to each man and checked that he had a weapon.

- every has the same meaning but there is less emphasis on individual.

Every man had a weapon = the speaker counted the men & the weapons & he had the same number of each.

- every is used with nouns in the meaning of total, complete (chance, hope, reason, sympathy, right, confidence)

You have every right to be here. – Т и маєш повне право тут бути. .

- each is used when we have the choice from two things only! There were tears streaming down each side of her face.

Each + of these/those, the of can’t be omitted; each of you = you each

- everyone/everybody + singular verb: Everyone is ready (NOT All the people are ready)

- everything + singular verb: Everything has been wasted (NOT All the things have been wasted)

Note! The expressions all (the people), all (the) things are possible when followed by a noun, pronoun or a clause:

- all + noun: All the people in the room clapped. I got all the things you asked for.

- all + pronoun: All (both) of us went there. (= We all (both) went there.)

- all + (that): All that I want is to have a rest now.

We use whole most often with singular countable nouns; we use all most often with uncountable & plural nouns:

a whole concert – all the music; a whole plate – all the food

We use the whole of before the names of places: the whole of Europe.

Note! The whole night BUT all the night/day/time/life. Patterns: Tell me all about it. They left me all alone. That’s all.

Other(s) & Another

When other is used before a plural noun, it doesn’t have –s.

When other is used without a noun, it has –s in the plural.

Tell the other people. Tell the others.

Negative

Neither/Either

- neither = not one and not the other; + an affirmative singular verb: I’ve read neither of these books.

- either = any of two; + an affirmative singular verb: Would you like either of these?

- either + negative verb can replace neither + affirmative: I haven’t read either of these books.

- neither… nor + affirmative verb is an emphatic way of combining two negatives: He neither wrote nor phoned.

- either… or is used to express alternatives emphatically: You can have either tea or fruit juice. (not both)

Note! Either/neither = the choice from two things/people: Neither of his parents knew what he had done.

- None = for all things: They asked for a reason, but none have been given.

None of you – ніхто з вас (NOT nobody of you)

Indefinite

SOME is used:

ANY is used:

- with affirmative verbs: They bought some honey.

- in questions where the answer ‘yes’ is expected:

Did some of you sleep on the floor? (I expect so).

- in offers & requests: Would you like some wine?

- some = unknown: Some idiot broke my window!

- with negative verbs: I haven’t got any matches.

- with hardly, barely, scarcely (which are almost negatives):

I hardly have any spare time.

-  with without when without any = without no:

He crossed the frontier without any difficulty.

-  with questions except offers & requests:

Have you got any money?

- after if/whether & in expressions of doubt:

If you need any more money, please let me know.

- in imperative sentences: Take any book you like.

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