Word formation in English
1. Affixation: adding a derivational affix to a word.
| a. SUFFIXES | ||||
| NOUN + ... ful = ADJECTIVE (meaning full of., having.) | art - artful care - careful | |||
| NOUN + ... less = ADJECTIVE (meaning without.) | art - artless care - careless | |||
| COUNTABLE NOUN + hood = UNCOUNTABLE ABSTRACT NOUN | adult - adulthood neighbor - neighborhood knight - knighthood | |||
| COUNTABLE NOUN + ship = UNCOUNTABLE ABSTRACT NOUN | citizen - citizenship to dealer - dealership member - membership | |||
| ADJECTIVE + ness = UNCOUNTABLE ABSTRACT NOUN | appropriate - appropriateness aware - awareness clever - cleverness | |||
| ADJECTIVE + ity = ABSTRACT NOUN | accountable - accountability applicable - applicability | |||
| NOUN + ... ous (al, ish, y, ic, ese, ian) = ADJECTIVE | fame - famous fraction - fractional luck - lucky nostalgia — nostalgic Japan — Japanese Russia — Russian | |||
| NOUN (ADJECTIVE) + ... fy (ize / -ise) = VERB | justice — justify clear — clarify legal — legalize | |||
| ADJECTIVE + ism (dom, th) = NOUN | real — realism free — freedom strong — strength deep — depth | |||
| VERB + аnсе/ ence (ment, ure, ing) = NOUN | to resist — resistance to differ — difference to develop — development to press — pressure to begin — beginning | |||
| VERB + tion (sion) = NOUN | accelerate - acceleration calculate - calculation compensate - compensation | |||
| VERB + er (or) = NOUN | analyze - analyzer compute - computer collect - collector | |||
| VERB + able (... ible) = ADJECTIVE | account - accountable sense - sensible | |||
| VERB + ive (ative) = ADJECTIVE | communicate - communicative expend - expensive | |||
| ADJECTIVE + ly = ADVERB | effective - effectively | |||
| b. PREFIXES | ||||
| NEGATIVE PREFIXES | ||||
| un | Meaning: the opposite of, the absence of, not Added to: adjectives and participles | unable unfriendly unpleasant | ||
| non | Meaning: not Added to: noun, adjective, adverb | non-smoker non-perishable non-trivially | ||
| in (il, im, ir) | Meaning: the opposite of, not Added to: adjective | illogical immature incomplete irresponsible | ||
| dis | Meaning: the opposite of, not Added to: adjective, verb, abstract noun | disconnect disobedience dissociate | ||
| a | Meaning: lacking in, lack of Added to: adjective, noun | amoral asymmetry | ||
| REVERSATIVE PREFIXES | ||||
| un | Meaning: to reverse the action (1), to deprive of, to release from (2) Added to: verb (1), noun (2) | (1) uncover unpack (2) unhorse unmask | ||
| de | Meaning: to reverse the action (1), to deprive of, to release from (2) Added to: verb, noun | (1) decentralize denationalization (2) decapitate deforestation | ||
| dis | Meaning: to reverse the action (1), lacking (2) Added to: verb (1), adjective (2) | (1) disassemble disconnect (2) discouraged disinterested | ||
| PEJORATIVE PREFIXES | ||||
| mis | Meaning: wrongly, astray Added to: verb, participle, abstract noun | miscalculate misunderstanding | ||
| mal | Meaning: badly, bad Added to: verb, participle, adjective, abstract noun | malformation malpractice | ||
| pseudo | Meaning: false, imitation Added to: noun, adjective | pseudo-intellectual pseudo-scientific | ||
| PREFIXES OF DEGREE OR SIZE | ||||
| arch | Meaning: supreme, most Added to: nouns with human reference | arch-enemy arch-hypocrite | ||
| super | Meaning: more than, very special, on top Added to: noun, adjective, verb | supercomputer supermarket superpower | ||
| out | Meaning: doing better, surpassing Added to: noun, intransitive verb | outclass outnumber outweigh | ||
| sur | Meaning: over and above Added to: noun | surcharge surtax | ||
| sub | Meaning: below Added to: adjective | subatomic subnormal | ||
| over | Meaning: excessive, too much Added to: verb, adjective | overdo overestimate overwork | ||
| under | Meaning: too little Added to: verb, participle | undercharge underestimate understatement | ||
| hyper | Meaning: extreme Added to: adjective | hyperactive hypersensitive | ||
| ultra | Meaning: extreme, beyond Added to: adjective, noun | ultra-conservative ultra-modern | ||
| mini | Meaning: little Added to: noun | minibus mini-market | ||
| co | Meaning: jointly, on equal basis Added to: noun, verb | co-education cooperate coordinate | ||
| PREFIXES OF ORIENTATION AND ATTITUDE | ||||
| counter | Meaning: against, in opposition to Added to: verb, abstract noun, adjective | counteract counter-revolution | ||
| anti | Meaning: against Added to: adjective, noun | anti-clockwise anti-social | ||
| pro | Meaning: for, on the side of, on behalf of, in support of Added to: adjective, noun | pro-American | ||
| contra | Meaning: opposite, contrasting Added to: noun, verb, adjective | contradistinction contrafactual | ||
| LOCATIVE PREFIXES | ||||
| super | Meaning: above Added to: noun | superscript superstructure | ||
| sub | Meaning: under Added to: adjective, verb, noun | subcontract subdivide | ||
| inter | Meaning: between, among Added to: adjective, verb, noun | international interweave | ||
| trans | Meaning: across, from one place to another Added to: adjective, verb | transatlantic trans-Siberian | ||
| fore | Meaning: front part of, front Added to: noun | foreground forename | ||
| PREFIXES OF TIME AND ORDER | ||||
| fore | Meaning: before Added to: verb, noun | forecast foreknowledge | ||
| pre | Meaning: before Added to: noun, adjective | pre-marital pre-19th century | ||
| post | Meaning: after Added to: noun, adjective | post-classical post-election | ||
| ex | Meaning: former Added to: human nouns | ex-boyfriend ex-president | ||
| re | Meaning: again. back Added to: verb, noun | reclaim recycle re-evaluate | ||
| NUMBER PREFIXES | ||||
| uni | Meaning: one Added to: noun, adjective | unicycle unisex | ||
| mono | Meaning: one Added to: noun, adjective | monogamy monorail | ||
| bi | Meaning: two Added to: noun, adjective | bicycle bilateral bilingual | ||
| di | Meaning: two Added to: noun, adjective | dichotomy divalent | ||
| tri | Meaning: three Added to: noun, adjective | triangle trinomial | ||
| multi | Meaning: many Added to: noun, adjective | multi-national multi-purpose | ||
| poly | Meaning: many Added to: noun, adjective | polygon polytechnic | ||
| semi | Meaning: half Added to: noun, adjective | semi-automatic semi-final semi-precious | ||
| demi | Meaning: half (used mainly in words of French origin) Added to: noun, adjective | demi-pension demi-sec | ||
| hemi | Meaning: half Added to: noun, adjective | hemicylindrical hemisphere | ||
| MISCELLANEOUS AND NEO-CLASSICAL PREFIXES | ||||
| auto | Meaning: self Added to: noun, adjective | autobiography automobile | ||
| neo | Meaning: new, revived (used for political, artistic, etc, movements) Added to: noun, adjective | neoclassicism neoconservative | ||
| pan | Meaning: all, world-wide (used mainly with reference to worl-wide or continent-wide activities) Added to: noun, adjective | pan-African panchromatic | ||
| proto | Meaning: first, original Added to: noun, adjective | Proto-Germanic prototype | ||
| extra | Meaning: outside, beyond, exceptionally Added to: adjective | extra-curricular extramarital | ||
| tele | Meaning: distant Added to: noun | telecommunications telephone television | ||
| vice | Meaning: deputy Added to: noun | vice-chairman vice-president | ||
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2. Compoundin g: joining two or more words into one new word.
Examples: skateboard, whitewash, cat lover, self-help, red-hot, etc.
3. Zero derivation: (also called conversion or functional shift): Adding no affixes; simply using a word of one category as a word of another category.
Examples: noun - verb: comb, sand, knife, butter, referee, proposition.
4. Stress shif t: no affix is added to the base, but the stress is shifted from one syllable to the other. With the stress shift comes a change in category.
Examples:
| noun | verb |
| cómbine ímplant réwrite tránsport | combíne implánt rewríte transpórt |
| noun | adjective |
| cóncrete ábstract | сoncréte abstráct |
5. Clipping: shortening of a polysyllabic word.
Examples: bro (brother), pro (professional), prof (professor), math (mathematics), veg ('vegetate', as in veg out in front of the TV), sub (substitute or submarine).
6. Acronym formation: forming words from the initials of a group of words that designate one concept. Usually, but not always, capitalized. An acronym is pronounced as a word if the consonants and vowels line up in such a way as to make this possible, otherwise it is pronounced as a string of letter names.
Examples: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), radar (radio detecting and ranging), NFL (National Football League), AFL-CIO (American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations).
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7. Blending: Parts (which are not morphemes!) of two already-existing words are put together to form a new word.
Examples: motel (motor hotel) brunch (breakfast & lunch), smog (smoke & fog), telethon (television & marathon), modem (modulator & demodulator), Spanglish (Spanish & English).
8. Backformation: A suffix identifiable from other words is cut off of a base which has previously not been a word; that base then is used as a root, and becomes a word through widespread use. This differs from clipping in that, in clipping, some phonological part of the word which is not interpretable as an affix or word is cut off (e.g. the '-essor' of 'professor' is not a suffix or word; nor is the '-ther' of 'brother'. In backformation, the bit chopped off is a recognizable affix or word ('ham ' in 'hamburger'), '-ion' in 'self-destruction'. Backformation is the result of a false but plausible morphological analysis of the word; clipping is a strictly phonological process that is used to make the word shorter. Clipping is based on syllable structure, not morphological analysis. It is impossible for you to recognize backformed words or come up with examples from your own knowledge of English, unless you already know the history of the word.
Examples: pronunciate (pronunciation - pronounce), resurrect (resurrection), enthuse (enthusiasm), self-destruct (self-destruction - destroy), burgle (burglar), attrit (attrition), burger (hamburger).
9. Adoption of brand names as common words: a brand name becomes the name for the item or process associated with the brand name. The word ceases to be capitalized and acts as a normal verb/noun (i.e. takes inflections such as plural or past tense). The companies using the names usually have copyrighted them and object to their use in public documents, so they should be avoided in formal writing (or a lawsuit could follow!).
Examples: xerox, kleenex, band-aid, kitty litter.
10. Onomatopoeia: words are invented which (to native speakers at least) sound like the sound they name or the entity which produces the sound.
Examples: hiss, sizzle, cuckoo, cock-a-doodle-doo, buzz, beep, ding-dong.
11. Borrowing: a word is taken from another language. It may be adapted to the borrowing language's phonological system to varying degrees.
Examples: skunk, tomato (from indigenous languages of the Americas), sushi, taboo, wok (from Pacific Rim languages), chic, shmuck, macho, spaghetti, dirndl, psychology, telephone, physician, education (from European languages), hummus, chutzpah, cipher, artichoke (from Semitic languages), yam, tote, banana (from African languages).
REFERENCES
Easy reading:
http://www.accountancyage.com // Accountancy Age - electronic magazine
http://acct.tamu.edu/giroux/history.html // Accounting history
http://acct.tamu.edu/giroux/first.html // Who was the first accountant?
http://acct.tamu.edu/giroux/timeline.html // Great Events in Accounting & Business History
http://www.acaus.org/acc_his.html / John R. Alexander History of accounting // Net Gain
http://www.joblatino.com/jokes/accounta.html // Accountant Jokes
http://www.workjoke.com/projoke42.htm // Professional Jokes
English Grammar:
Качалова К.Н. Практическая грамматика английского языка / К.Н. Качалова, Е.Е. Израилевич.- М.: “Лист” New, 2003- 544 с.
Evans Verginia FCE Use of English: New Edition. / Verginia Evans.- Express Publishing, 2000.- 219 p.
Hewings M. Advanced Grammar in Use / M.Hewings. - Paperback. Cambridge University Press, 2005. -340 p.
http://smccd.net/accounts/sevas/esl/gramcheck/
http://www.better-english.com/vocabulary.htm
http://www.better-english-test.com/
http://www.englishpage.com/modals/oughtto.html
http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/grammar/archive/verbsindex.html
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/grammar.htm
http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/wc/verbs.htm
http://www.ac-nancy-metz.fr/enseign/anglais/Henry/modaux.htm http://www.wordpower.ws/grammar/gramch10.html
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/artikel_the.htm
http://www.learn4good.com/languages/evrd_grammar/articles.htm
http://www.ohiou.edu/esl/english/grammar/special.html
http://www.englishforjapanese.com/
http://a4esl.org/q/h/grammar.html
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/grammar.htm
Business English (Accounting):
http://www.swcollege.com/vircomm/gita/gita_main.html
http://www.vcta.asn.au/html/classroom/accounting/accounting.htm
http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/Business_English/Business_English-accounting_and_finance.asp
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/vocabula.htm
http://www.vocabulary.co.il/
http://esl.about.com/
Dictionaries:
Англо-русский экономический словарь: Ок. 70 000 терминов / Под ред. А.В. Аникина.- М.: Рус.яз., 1981.- 792с.
Годман А. Толковый словарь английской научной лексики / А. Годман., ЕМФ Пейн. - М.: Рус.яз., 1989.-728 с.
Долан Э.Дж. Экономикс: Англо-русский словарь – справочник / Э.Дж. Долан, Б.И. Домненко. – М.: Лазурь, 1994. – 544 с.
Жданова И.Ф. Русско-английский экономический словарь / И.Ф. Жданова.- М.: Рус. яз. – Медиа, 2003.-880 с.
Новый Большой англо-русский словарь: В 3 т. / Ю.Д. Медникова, А.В. Петрова и др; Под общ. ред. Ю.Д. Апресяна и Ю.Д. Медниковой.- 8-е изд., стереотип.-М.: Рус.яз, 2003.- 832 с.
Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English – 6th edition / A.S. Hornby.- Oxford University Press, 2004 – 1540 p.
Thompson D. The Oxford Russian Dictionary: Third Edition / D.Thompson.- Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2000.-1295 p.
http://mega.km.ru/alphabyte // англо-русский - русско-английский словарь
CONTENTS
| Introduction......................................................................................... | 3 |
| Unit 1 HOW IT ALL BEGAN............................................................ | 4 |
| Unit 2 FROM RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT............................... | 21 |
| Unit 3 PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY.................................. | 40 |
| Unit 4 BASIC INFORMATION............................................................. | 60 |
| Unit 5 TOOLBOX................................................................................. | 83 |
| Unit 6 DOING BUSINESS................................................................... | 105 |
| Unit 7ACCOUNTING TODAY AND TOMORROW............................ | |
| Unit 8 ACCOUNTANT AND SOCIETY................................................. | 125 |
| Revision............................................................................................... | 147 |
| Answer keys............................................................................. Vocabulary.......................................................................................... | 153 154 |
| Appendix............................................................................... | 165 |
| Some tips on making an annotation.................................................... | 165 |
| Some useful phrases for annotation................................................... | 166 |
| Word formation in English.................................................................. | 167 |
| References.......................................................................................... | 173 |
| Contents............................................................................................. | 175 |
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