Scientific Prose Style
The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, and the like. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.
Scientific style is widely spread in academic articles, brochures, manuals, popular science books, monographs and other scientific and academic publications. Among the style-forming features of scientific writing are the following:
- the logical sequence of utterances with a clear indication of the interrelations and interdependencies;
- objectivity, accuracy, and maximal impersonality of expression;
- the use of terms and terminological expressions specific to a particular branch of science;
- the prevalent use of words in their primary logical meaning;
- the use of self-explanatory terms, neutral and common literary words;
- the use of words in no more than one meaning, avoidance of the possibility of ambiguity;
- the developed and varied system of connectives;
- the use of conventional sentence patterns of postulatory, argumentative and formulative types;
- the use of quotations and references;
- the use of footnotes both of the reference kind and digressive in character.
The enumerated characteristic features of scientific style do not cover all the peculiarities of scientific prose, but they are the most essential ones.
Exercises
Exercise 1.
The following texts are drawn from scientific work representing different branches of science: linguistics, politics, and history. Write out terms and terminological expressions that are specific to each of these spheres of academic research.
Text 1
Having surveyed various aspects of construal, essential for describing the individual senses of lexical items, let us now consider their grouping into classes. Basic lexical classes (i.e. noun, verb, adjective, etc.) are claimed in CG to be susceptible to semantic characterization. The recognition of semantic prototypes for these classes is, of course, quite common: a linguist does not risk ostracism by asserting the prototypicality of physical objects for the class of nouns, of properties for adjectives, etc. By contrast, the claim that these classes also have schematic characterizations – abstract semantic descriptions valid for all class members – runs directly counter to accepted linguistic dogma. There is, however, no real basis for this dogma other than a lack concerning the kinds of notions one might conceivably posit for this purpose. From my perspective, it is utterly implausible to suppose that something as fundamental and universal as the noun and verb classes would not reflect a rudimentary conceptual distinction. The usual mistake is to assume that such a distinction would have to reside in specific conceptual content, in which case viable definitions are indeed unavailable. We have seen, though, that meaning is a function of both content and construal. It is in the realm of construal and basic cognitive abilities that we must seek the schematic characterization of lexical items.
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(Langacker R. W. “Grammar and Conceptualization”)
Text 2
Until about 1920 the two main parties were the Conservatives and the Liberals, but during the period of political confusion which followed the First World War the Labour Party replaced the Liberals as the second main party. Some people, both in Parliament and outside, who are really indistinguishable from Conservatives, are called by other party labels – Unionist, Ulster Unionist (in Northern Ireland), or National Liberal; but the name ‘Conservative’ can quite properly be used so as to include all these groups. The Conservatives and their allies are opposed to great changes in society, they uphold private enterprise and freedom from state control, and they stand for the maintenance of order and authority at home and the protection of the national interest in foreign relations. They are still often called by their old name of ‘Tories’ (which originally meant Irish outlaws) by which they were known from the late seventeenth century. Toryism seems to involve an acceptance of human wickedness, together with a strong personal loyalty to persons or things which are near and tangible – families, friends, institutions, and the Queen as the embodiment of the Nation and the Commonwealth. To the Left, with its tendency to look for a disembodied common good, discoverable by Reason, Tories often seem hypocritical. The Labour Party believes actively in the pursuit of greater social and economic equality, and in foreign affairs it is, in theory, at least, more ‘internationalist’, than ‘nationalist’. According to the Party’s constitution, it still aims at the nationalization of the means of production, distribution and exchange, but many of its members are now not very interested in this objective. Quite simply we may say that the Conservatives are the ‘Right’ and the Labour Party the ‘Left’ in politics.
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(Bromhead P. “Life in Modern Britain”)
Text 3
Most contemporary archeologists reject the comparative method. This grants both too much and too little. On the one hand, we are not entitled to use ethnological data even as a gloss or commentary until we have analyzed and classified their social context. […] On the other hand, it almost meaningless to say that the thoughts and beliefs of prehistoric man have perished save so far as they are recoverable by excavation. The whole question is how far. And there is only one way of answering it – by considering the nature of primitive thought in general, that is, by applying the comparative method. If the problem is approached from this angle – if the ground is properly prepared – we shall find that the archeologist’s spade goes deeper than is usually supposed.
Among the paleolithic remains thrown up by this spade are the bones of dogs. These animals have reacted to their environment in the same way as Pavlov’s, because they belong to the same species. Animal behavior is determined by the operation of physical impulses in response to external stimuli. In man, however, these impulses have been modified by social tradition, and to an increasing degree in proportion as he has become civilized. Further, the development of man’s social tradition is determined by his use of tools – by production. The rich individuality of civilized thought, the complexity of our social relations, the multiple divisions of labor, the elaborate technique of modern industry – all these are manifestations at different levels of the high development of the productive forces, in virtue of which the human consciousness has continually extended its control of its environment. As we descend the scale, the technique of production declines, divisions of labor disappear, social organization becomes simpler, the human consciousness more uniform, more immediately determined by the mere struggle for existence.
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(Thomson G. “The Prehistoric Aegean: Studies in Ancient Greek Society”)
Exercise 2.
The following excerpt from a monograph contains lexical items that belong to different stylistic sub-groups of the English vocabulary. Classify the italicized words and expressions into three groups: (a) common literary words and expressions; (b) linguistic terms and expressions; (c) psychological terms and expressions. Suggest Russian equivalents to the classified lexical items.
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