Chronology of Development with Notable Dates from Main Text
Introduction.
This book is a result of an interest in the early medieval crossbow from the author’s involvement in re-enactment as a member of the Harlech Medieval society. The original research was intended to allow the informed portrayal of a Gascon mercenary crossbowman fighting in the Welsh wars of Edward I c.1282.
Studies of medieval firepower have for many years been focused on the development and deployment of the English Longbow emphasized by the victories made By this weapon against the French at Crecy and Agincourt.
However during the early medieval period it was the crossbow that was the predominant missile weapon, especially for the defence of the increasingly sophisticated concentric castle of this period. These castles are arrayed with a number of arrow slits, for shooting bolts from, called "arbalestena" in French, Thus, for example this study attempts to use such evidence to re-address this bias in favour of the crossbow - the devil's engine.
It provides a short chronological history of the crossbow in Eastern Europe during the early medieval period and provides details of its employment during the wars of the English King Edward l in the latter part of the 13th c. The study examines the development, design and mechanics of the cross*bow and of the bolts. It aims to answer these questions:
o How and where crossbows produced in the early medieval period and By whom?
o what was the extent of its deployment and in what particular role?
o what equipment, amour, etc. was carried By the crossbowman?
o When and why was it was introduced and why was it superseded By the long bow?
CONTENTS
I. The Introduction and Origin of the crossbow
Early History and the Crusades
The Norman Conquest
The Twelfth Century
The Thirteenth Century
Edward I and the war in wales
The Fourteenth Century
II. The Early Medieval Crossbow
Types of Crossbow
The Design and Development
Materials and methods of construction
Specifications, sizes, weights and dimensions
Continuity and Date of Design:
( i ) Stock
( ii ) Mechanics / lock mechanism
( iii ) The Bow
( iv ) String
( v ) Means and Methods of Spanning
III. Bolts
( i ) Numbers produced, issued and carried
( ii ) Types of bolt heads and uses
( iii ) Flights
IV. Quivers, Armor and Accessories
V. Performance of crossbows
( i ) Range
( ii ) Accuracy
( iii ) Rate of Shooting
( iv ) Historical data and reference
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( v ) Medieval Crossbows al Reconstruction's
VI. The Deployment and Role of the crossbow in the early Medieval Army
Appendix
Chronology of Development with Notable dates from main text.
Bibliography
The Introduction and Origin of the Crossbow
Early History and the Crusades.
The earliest recorded use of the crossbow is the battle of May-ling, China 341 B.c. and a Chinese Bronze crossbow mechanism of 228 B.c. is the earliest artefact associated with this weapon.. Heron of Alexandria describes a form of hand ballista called the gastraphetes in the first century A.D.
It is recognized that the crossbow was carried as a weapon of war By the armies of Rome, in 385 A.D. F.Vegetius Renatus in De Re Militari refers to them. The crossbow was introduced into Western Europe by the conquering legions; although it also appears to have left with them and was no longer used as a military Weapon By circa 500 A.D. It remained in use as a hunting weapon as depicted on relief’s in France which date from the 4th C. and such Weapons are believed to have Been used By the Goths. The first recorded re-appearance into Western Europe as a weapon of war comes from the siege of Senlis in 947 A.D. where an attack was driven off by crossbowmen and in Lothair's expedition to Verdun in 985 A.D.
During the First crusade crossbowmen made an important contribution and are mentioned in the chronicle of William of Tyre in 1098 appearing at the Siege of Jerusalem in 1099.
In the last decade of the 11th c. the Byzantine princess Anna Commena (1083 – 1148 ) describes the crossbow as used By the first crusaders :
"The tzagran (crossbow) is a bow used by the barbarians that is absolutely unknown to the Greeks. This long-range projectile weapon is spanned by the user lying down on his back and putting one foot on each of the bow's arms and then drawing the string toward him with both hands. Along the middle of the tiller a semicircular groove is gouged out, running from the string (in its spanned position) to the center of the bow, and along this groove the arrows are shot. The arrows which are usually used with the tzagran are very short but thick and with a heavy iron head. When the string is released it drives out the bolts with such great, force and speed that they do not rebound from any object that they hit. They have been known to pierce a shield, cut through a heavy iron breastplate and continue their flight on the other side, so great is the force with which these bolts are shot. Indeed, arrows of this type have been driven right through Bronze sculptures and, when they have hit a city wall, their heads have either come out on the far side or have remained buried in the city wall. The tzagran is thus an invention of the devil. The unfortunate man, who is hit by it dies without feeling the mighty blow."
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Image of a Demon late 13th C.France.
Spanning an early crossbow.
The Norman Conquest
Its introduction to Britain is often cited as a 12th c. date, according to Guillaum le Breton, however this is a reintroduction or an increase in its use after the Norman Conquest. Though there is no representation of the crossbow on the Bayeux Tapestry, Guy of Armiens records in 1067 that they were used by balistantes of William's army during the battle of Hastings. It has been suggested that they were used as a snipers weapon to kill Saxon leaders, an early testament to its accuracy.
The Norman Doomsday Book records in 1085 that certain lands in Yorkshire were held for the rent of a crossbow and tenants in chief are noted as "arcuballistarii'' or captains of crossbow men. A reference of 1086 refers to "Odo the Arbalaster''. These feudal due's continued until the 12th C. when estates in England were held in service of delivery of a crossbow and the thread to make a string to be provided when the King passed through. William II was killed by a crossbow in the New Forest whilst hunting in 1100.
Spain, 1086. Late Roman or Middle Eastern Crossbow.
The 12th Century.
This period saw the predominance of the crossbow as a missile weapon in the armies of Western Europe. Henry I had many crossbowmen in his service, many of them appear to have been mercenaries particularly ltalian's and Genoese. The Papal Ban of 1139 from Pope Innocent II and the Lateran Council held in Rome declared the crossbow:
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"an invention of the devil, deathly and hateful to God and unfit to be used amongst Christians, only against heretics and pagans''
The ruling had little effect on the employment of crossbowmen, even in the armies of the Pope. The increasing power of the military crossbow was beginning to be seen as a threat to the feudal system as those of no title now had efficient means with which to slay the knights and nobles, or ruling classes, who as mounted heavy knights had ruled the battlefield for centuries. This contempt, held By the knightly classes pre-dates the French hatred of the English longbowman by two hundred years. Genoese crossbowmen captured by the Milanese had one eye put out and a hand severed!
However, crossbowmen particularly proved their worth during the crusades. Emperor Conrad III (1138-1152) ordered that the papal ban be obeyed and the crossbow was not to be used in either the domain or in the army, the English Kings Stephen (1135-1154) and Henry II (1154-1 l89) however had many crossbowmen in their service. They continued to be employed by successive kings during this century most notably by King Richard ('the Lionheart,) 1189-1199 a great advocate of this weapon.
The 15th C monk of Jervaulx John Brompton said of him –
«Truly this kind of shooting, already laid aside, which is called crossbow, shooting, Was revived by him, when he became so skilful in its management that he killed many people with his own hand».
Moreover his personal marksmanship was recorded in a chronicle of the siege of Acre –
"one of the Turks, boastfully wearing the armor of the aforesaid Aberic CIements (previously captured, stripped and killed by the Turks) was showing himself on the highest part of the wall to the annoyance of our men, but Кing Richard inflicted on him a deadly wound, piercing him through the heart, with a cast of his arbalest"
Not only was the crossbow employed By Richard as a personal weapon he was the greatest exponent of the tactical employment of foot crossbowmen, during the Third crusade he deployed his crossbowmen as a screen before the cavalry hawing trained them to let the mounted troops pass through when the counter attack was signaled. Many of the best of these specialist troops were supplied By Genoa and Pisa. The Chronicle of the Third Crusade proclaimed –
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"What army was ever assailed by so mighty a force? There you might have seen our troopers, having lost their chargers, marching on foot with the footmen, or casting missiles from their arbalests… it rained darts, the air was filled with the shower of arrows, and the brightness of the sun was obscured By the multitude of missiles as it had been darkened by the fall of winter hail or snow... no matter how close the armor fitted, nor if the coal of mail was twofold, it availed little to resist the bolts from the arbalests"
With historic irony Richard Coeur de Lion was himself to be slain By a crossbowman during the siege of the castle at Chaluz in France 1199.He Was initially wounded in the shoulder next to his neck and the bolt was cut out. The crossbowman was himself captured and Brought Before the wounded king who pardoned him and is said to have rewarded his shooting with a purse of money. However gangrene set in and Richard died. The unfortunate crossbowman was then flayed alive by the English troops, King Richard's death was even viewed as divine retribution by the church who attempted to иan the crossbow repeating the papal Edict at the end of the 12th C without any effect.
Late 12th or early 13th C. French crossbows.
The Thirteenth Century
This continued and increasing use of the crossbow can be seen in the recording during the rule of the English King John when in 1205 he sent the Sheriff of Salop:
"Peter, a balister of 3 horses, and 9 two-horse balisters, 10 s and 4 d per day for all"
Also during his reign a certain Peter the Saracen a maker of crossbows was retained by the constable of Northampton for 9 pence per day. Another ban was attempted with the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, this document bound the King to banish:
“From the Kingdom all the foreign knights, crossbowmen, their attendants, and all mercenaries that have come to it, to its harm"
The Chronicles of Mathew of Paris record crossbowmen in the Van of the army and as an essential part of the host. Most of his records of conflicts mention crossbowmen. For example the battle of Damietta 1237 records that:
"More than a hundred of the knights of the Temple fell, and three hundred crossbowmen, not including some other seculars, and a large number of foot soldiers."
The account given By Emperor Frederick to the English king in 1239 of the Italian campaign states:
“After we had by our knights and crossbowmen reduced the province of Liguria"
Southern Italy 1200-1220
The account of the Siege of Carcassonne in 1240 not only attests to its use but also to its effectiveness with the following extracts taken from the accounts of the assault, and of the besieged:
"And at both these places they had so many crossbowmen that no man could stir out of the city without being wounded " and later "still being unable to approach the spot on account of the bolts from their crossbows " and from the defenders account “we had such good store of crossbows, and brave fellows determined to resist to the utmost, that they never assaulted us but with great loss to themselves"
Philip le Convers was paid 4 and a half pence a day to repair crossbows stored in the Tower of London from 1240 - 1245. During this time Henry III was defeated by Louis IV at the battle of Taillebourg 1242 where the French corpse of 700 crossbowmen were considered the flower of the infantry whilst the count de la Marcha:
“Broke through the midst of the Poitevin cross-bowmen''
France mid-13th C.
In the same year 60 crossbowmen were sent to Dover castle and the crossbows stored there and at the Tower to be tested. A long military campaign in 1245 required the constable of Winchester castle to send 8 crossbows to Portsmouth, for shipment with 50,000 quarrels.
In 1250 we learn that due to the deterioration of crossbows engineers were sent to castles for repairs. The sheriff of Northumberland was directed to send Master Gerard the Engineer to Bamburgh and Newcastle to repair the bows and once complete to return the tools to the main store of northern England at Nottingham castle. John Malemont the chief Quarrel maker produced 25,000 quarrels a year. He was expected to make 100 bolts a day being paid 7 and a half pence with 3 pence for fletching them. He was also to Be supplied with:
"Wood, iron, charcoal, lard, bran, grindstone and barrels for packing''
A Henry Teutonicus in 1258 was : "factor balistarum regis apud Turrim" and in 1260 Thomas de Sancto Sepulcro was appointed “attiliator” at the Tower, receiving the timber from Hadleigh Forest and the Sheriff of Hampshire ordered to buy 10 “good crossbows" manufactured either at the Tower or by travelling 'attiliatores'. Also during 1260 Henry le fevue is recorded as the Kings quarrel maker drawing 4 and a half pence per day plus the materials required and an allowance of 3 buckets of bolts per 5 crossbows was made for Prince Edward. Stores of Quarrels were made regionally, for the South at Windsor, Corfe and Bristol, for the North at Nottingham aлd Chester which also served North Wales; the largest store was at Hereford Castle to supply the Marches. There was a large store at the Tower although most were distributed from St.Briavels. The Barons received more crossbows than Before, the Lord Edward had for the defence of Odiham castle 5 crossbows of horn, of which 2 were 2 feet and 3 were l foot with 3 buckets of quarrels of different sizes. The Kings forces besieging Kenilworth castle in 1270 had sent for 6 crossbows at 7 s each from Windsor.
Crusader crossbowmen c. 1280- 1290.
Edward I and the Wars in Wales.
It is Edward I and the series of wars with the welsh princes that provide the most complete records of the recruiting, equipping and deployment of the early medieval crossbowman. It was the chief weapon of two classes of medieval society, the citizen militia of chartered towns employed for the defense of the town or city walls. As a force composed entirely of citizen levies called upon at times of local and national emergency they remained ineffective as a force. London was the main provider until 1271 when Bristol, Gloucester and Winchester began to supply these troops.
By far the largest and most efficient class was that of the professional soldier or mercenary who became an essential part of the medieval army. These troops soon became associated with their home country that then became seen as a great exporter of these soldiers. Many were Genoese or Pisans who had gained their reputation in Palestine. They were particularly recruited as marines. The Low Countries provided a levy of crossbowmen, however the most numerous and famous came from Gascony, which also provided mounted troops.
Gascony supplied 120 mounted and foot crossbowman in 1277, in the March of that year some of these troops were put into garrison with additional 20 mounted foreign crossbowman. Some 150,000 1ft and 50,000 2ft bolts were ordered for South Wales in July 1278 there were 250 crossbowman with the Kings main army made up of 100 Londoners, 50 from other parts of England and 100 from Gascony and Ponthieu. A special brigade of mounted crossbowman was formed with a detachment of choice archers of Maclesfield under the command of the Gascon Imbert de Monte Regalia. Imbert is also recorded buying 1000's of bolts at a time to supply the brigade at Flint castle. This command was later divided into a company of marines and a detachment of 100 troops posted to the Royal Household with the King. As a specialist they enjoyed the privilege of receiving journey money as at the end of the war of 1277 to return home; 48 to London, 13 to other parts of England and 66 to other parts of Picardy en route for Gascony and other parts of France. It is recorded that a Gascon captain left £37 unpaid debts – 42s landlord, 8s to a chandler and 6s to a barber!
The importance of Gascon soldiery was recorded By Langtoft in the following, verse:
" Demorent of le rays, rescayvent ses douns,
En mores e mountaynes raumpent cum lyouns,
S'en vount of les Engleys, ardent les mesouns,
Abatent les chatels, tuent les feIouns,
Passez sunt Ia Marche, entrez en Snoudons ''
During the war of 1282 the recorded 250 English cross-bowmen were divided into various divisions in the army and the fleet. At the beginning of the year 12 Gascon mounted cross-bowmen joined the royal household. Later a Corpse of 1500 joined the army, some as mounted troops. The Bristol depot supplied 14,000 bolts to Rhuddlan, 10,000 to Chester and 10,000 to Carmarthen. A further 4,000 bolts were supplied to the fleet. Later in that year 40,000 were sent under escort of 10 troopers as a reserve supply from London. The Angelsy division of the army alone Was issued 170,000 bolts to its English and Gascon cross-Bowmen in 1283.The Gascon's had brought 10,000 bolts with them packed in 29 barrel’s and 12 baskets ( 2000 bolts in a Barrel and 1000 in a basket ? ) This compares to surviving records of only 16,000 arrows being issued during this period Carnarvon castle received 120 cross-bows sent from Bristol with 24 being specified as 2-ft cross-Bows of Spanish yew and whalebone and complete with accoutrements, baldrics etc. At this time the country normally held at a time of peace some 104,800 bolts of which 16,000 were of 2ft. These imported troops saw much action during the Welsh wars sustaining 50 - 75 % losses by 1283.
The Statute of Winchester of 1285 stated that:
"and all other that maybe shall have bows and arrows out of the forest, and in the forest bows and bolts''
Although the statute records the provision of bows it is interesting to note that crossbow manufacture is not recorded as a requisite of "all other that maybe” although the production of bolts from the forest is" This may be a reflection of the sheer numbers of crossbow bolts that were required by the armies of the king and indicate one source of supply.
In 1287 9 cross-bows and 21,000 bolts were shipped from Bristol to Carmarthen and later a further 20 cross-Bows and 6,000 quarrels. In this year London and Bristol supplied 80 crossbowmen. The year 1295 saw Richard de Haverings relief expedition for the garrisons in wales when a ship and three Barges freighted from Ireland 18 Cross-Bowmen and 3 archers, food and bolts. Of the 5000 bolts 1,700 Were sold to cross-bowmen, 800 sold in Angelsy and 2500 left in the castles of Harlech and Criccieth. The reference to crossbowmen purchasing supplies of ammunition from this expedition may be indicative of the system of contract or terms and conditions of mercenary employment of this period, which may have required the troops to maintain a minimum number of bolts whilst on active service. The king tried to raise further cross-bowmen in England without a great deal of success. The English foot cross-bowmen were commanded by Henry de Greneford. Trivet the Chronicler attributes the victory over the Welsh at Cornway in January of 1295 entirely to the cross-Bow corpse....
"The Earl of Warwick, hearing that the Welsh were massed in great numbers in a certain plain Between two forests, took With him a picked body of men-at-arms, together with cross-bowmen and archers, and, surprising them by night, their spears on the ground, and turned the points against the, charging cavalry so as to defend themselves from their rush. But the earl placed cross-bowman between each 2 men-at-arms, and when the greater part of the spear-armed Welsh had been brought down by the bolts of the cross-bows, he charged the rest with his squadron of horse, and inflicted upon then a loss greater, it is believed, that any which had been experienced by them in the past wars.''
London supplied 50 cross-bowmen for the defense of the coast in 1296. There was an increase in the number of corpse during the war with Scotland, the winter of 1297-98 saw 250 foot and a few mounted troops in the field army although most garrisons of castles retained 10-15 cross-bowmen. The King retained 106 mounted Gascons during 1298. During the period of the Welsh wars a 'factor balistarum' and 'attilliator quarellorum' were employed at the Tower of London to make cross-bows and bolts on a yearly wage. The cost of these weapons was :-
atiqlista ad pedum the 1 foot cross-bow 3 - 5 shillings
arbalista ad pedes the 2 foot cross-bow 5 - 7 shillings
balista ad turnum windlass cross-bow 9 shillings
Quarrels 2,600 bolts 34s4d
Iron heads 1,000 14-16d
The pipe Rolls or Royal accounts from this period also provide us with evidence of the rates of pay for the Gascon Mercenaries. These superior professional soldiers had a great reputation throughout Europe and were organized into separate corpse. They were paid 3d or 4d a day which was twice that of a laborer or common foot soldier, officers paid 6d a day. This was the same wage as a master craftsman, smith or mason. Choice soldiers in select divisions could receive 1 shilling a day or as much as 1 s and 6d. This reflects the special training involved in being able to loose bolts rapidly and accurately and the specialist knowledge required to maintain the weapon. However, it was during this conflict that the English king became aware of the south Welshman’s weapon of choice - the longbow and it began to be employed in ever increasing numbers within the English armies both by the recently subjugated Welsh troops and home levied troops notably from Cheshire.
The Fourteenth Century
Thus this period became a transition point in the use of the crossbow in English armies although it remained a primary weapon for the defense of fortifications, both castles and towns at home and abroad. For example in 1301 12 crossbows with two - foot stirrups and 3000 bolts and 5000 bolts for one - foot stirrup crossbows were sent to Linlithgow By Edward I. To prosecute the war with Scotland in 1307 he had 100 crossbows with one - foot stirrups and 40 of two - foot stirrups made.
The Channel Islands were prepared for defense by Edward III in 1328 with the provision of 100 crossbows. The inventories dated 1344 and 1366 record at Dover 126 crossbows of which 34 had composite bows and two - foot stirrups. The English army accounts of 1372 - 1374 record 49 crossbows, 8 of which had composite bows the remainder of wood.
A surviving record from 1358 records the materials required to produce 25 composite crossbows:
"25 Pieces of yew, 25 staples, 25 nuts, 25 stirrups, 25 keys (triggers), 12 Ib wax, half Ib resinous pitch,4Ib tallow, charcoal, 4 lb glue, 4 Ib of oxsinew shredded like lint, 1 Ib of varnish and 12 rams horns. "
Throughout much of Europe the crossbow remained a principle weapon notably amongst the French, Burgundian, German and Teutonic armies. There is a greater amount of records and details in fact from many other European countries when compared with that from English sources and accounts. How closely the development and employment of the crossbow in English armies can Be reflected in the continental sources is difficult to access, however the English remained innovators in many forms of warfare during this period including the development of crossbow technology and craft, the English Windlass or cranequin for example during the latter half of this century. Companies of crossbowmen remained a feature of English armies into the 15th C. and were even employed during the Agincourt campaign. From France accounts and ordinances attest to its continuing popularity, for example in 1351 every crossbowman was to have a good crossbow and spanning belt. National recognition for this weapon continued with the large corps of Genoese crossbowmen. It was these troops who were defeated by the English army at the battle of Crecy in 1346. This engagement is often cited as a turning point in the rising superiority of the English armed with large numbers of longbows. The inefficiency of the Genoese crossbows during the fight has been accredited to the damp conditions caused by a downpour just before the engagement, however recent tests on strings show that it is possible to produce a waterproof string that will not absorb moisture even if it was totally submerged for 24 hours, and depending on the quality of the strings with which they were as an explanation of the defeat designed for Genoese erars!
Mid 14't'C. troops, Flanders.
The Burgundian accounts for 1362 details 382 light crossbows with wooden bows and 189 light and heavy crossbows with composite bows; one-foot stirrup with spanning belt, two-foot stirrup with windlasses. A contract of 1384 specifies crossbows made in the Genoese style (their defeat at Crecy was of no account 16 years later ? ) with iron Bands and costing 20 gros tournais of silver, complete with one foot stirrup, string of Antwerp thread, trigger and accessories cost 15 gros of silver.
By the end of the period (c.1400) it is Wales once again that provides the later account of the crossbow being employed by a foreign army from the mainland. The troops sent By the Duke of Orleans to aid the army of Owain Glyndwr in 1405 included according to the Monk of St. Denys:
"auxiliary troops commanded by illustrious knights..... Jean de Hangest the sieur de Hugueville, grandmaster of the crossbows of France"
Of the 2600 troops sent to Wales by the French in July 600 were crossbowmen who saw most of the ensuing actions as they and their Welsh allies attacked many towns and castles. The Monk of st. Denys tells us the French.
"at a fortified port, called Tenby. Having resolved with one accord to besiege and take this town, they posted their crossbowmen all around it''
Although not actually taking the town and retreating in the face of a relief force they were later responsible for the taking of Carmarthen castle By siege trenches and breaching the wall, whilst the Welsh troops :
"praised the French for their valor,... and sacked and burned the town destroying most of its, wall"
After a brief march into England the French troops embarked on November 1st:
"knights and esquires...on six little vessels, leaving Wales 1200 light troops and 500 crossbowmen under the orders of a Picard esquire, named le Begue de BeIay... (these troops)
who had always been the first in the assaults and saved them from more than one danger"
The following spring the beleaguered French troops that had endured the long hard welsh winter were taken back to France. The French made a final attempt to aid Glyndwr in 1406 when they sent 28 troop ships to Wales, however the English intercepted aлd captured 8,The remaining ships put the troops ashore somewhere in Wales and that is the last we know of this last, lost French expedition.
II. The Early Medieval Crossbow
Al crossbows share the basic characteristics of hawing a bow attached across the horizontal plane of a stock upon which a projectile, usually an arrow, is placed and shot. However the medieval crossbow was designed and developed into a number of specific types and forms with a variety of attributes. Crossbows may Be viewed within a chronological framework of development and evolution as an efficient military weapon; as recorded in the previous historical references.
The Latin term from which the modern English name crossbow derives is arcubalista - arcus: bow and balista : war machine. This is a specific artillery engine that delivers the motive force for its projectile with a bow as opposed to the other ancient methods, such as counter weights or twisted skeins of rope, hair or sinew acting upon levers or arms.
In Medieval Latin it is called balista or ballista and the medieval French for crossbows was the arbalestre or arbaleste. In Byzantine it is referred to as the tzagran or tzangran.
In northern Europe they are called lock-bows and in Scotland and northern England they were later termed latchets.
By the Thirteenth Century the name employed for various types of crossbow decribe a particular method of construction or means and mechanism for spanning the weapon.
arbalista ad unm peden one-foot crossbows
abalista ad duos pedes two-foot crossbows
balistae lignea ad duos pedes wooden bow
balisae de cornv ad duos pedes composite bow
balistas des torno windlass
de torno vel de lena spanned with natural strength
abalste a'tour spnned mechanically
espingales larger crossbows for defence
magne arbalista ad turno larger rampart crossbows, windlass
balista sine nuce, quae duos projicul quarelos double crossbow shooting two bolts
The advances and improvements to the crossbow as a weapon of war may be seen throughout the early medieval period. As the main improvements were made in the power of the bow the draw-weight (amount of physically produced energy needed to span the bow) also greatly increased as new materials and methods of manufacture were developed or introduced. This led to the use of various methods to assist the shooter in drawing back the string resulting in the mechanical windlass and cranequin. The mechanism for releasing the string also developed to become more efficient and improve accuracy. Although the following descriptions of crossbow types are presented in a general chronological order no one type of crossbow ever totally succeeded the type that had been employed previously. Thus the earliest types of mechanism can still be found in use during the Fourteenth Century and older crossbows modified with the latest ideas.
Rampart Crossbow mid l4th'C, Flanders.
Shortened yew arms, rising pin with spanning notch. From National Museum of Sweden.
(i)The Stock
It is the addition of a stock or tiller to the bow that differentiates it from the way a bow alone is shot. This term to describe the woodwork on which the bow is held may be a clue to an early naval development of the crossbow or it may refer to the shooter "steering" the bow to aim it whilst shooting.
There are a number of advantages in shooting a bow in this configuration. The tiller allows the projectile to Be shot from a solid, steady straight bed thus improving consistent accuracy. Not having to hold the arrow allows Mo hands to aim and steadies it whilst shooting. As the bow remains in the spanned position with the string drawn back it can be loaded ready for shooting. It can be kept in this ready state far longer than the archer, who can hold a fully drawn bow for only an instance in comparison.
South Italy circa 1200- 1220.
The stock is fashioned from a single piece of wood that is designed to allow the bow to be fixed at the front and tapered towards the rear. Unlike a firearm the early medieval crossbow is shot either with the stock placed on top of the shoulder or held under the arm. This may have been a preventative measure to avoid the danger of having the splintered remains of a broken lathe from hitting the shooter in the face if it failed whilst spanned. A hole allowed the addition of the lock mechanism for holding the spanned bow string and a shallow groove was often added to guide the arrow or bolt and became a common feature by the 11th Century. The stock varied in length, in proportion to the length of the bow and the length of bolt to be shot, although most surviving later crossbows have tillers near to a meter in length. Crossbows with longer stocks may be characteristic of a particular hazard encountered whilst shooting them, namely the prospect and result of the actual bow breaking whilst it is being aimed and shot. This allowed the crossbowman to be outside the arc of trajectory as a highly stressed bow split and Broke, for if one limb breaks it is still attached to the other limb and may come backwards at high speed towards the unfortunate shooter, This may also explain placing the stock on top of the shoulder. The length of the stock also related to the method employed to span the string often some 80 - 90 cm or more.
Sicily or Southern Italy early 13d' C (left) Castile Late l3th C. Note the length of the stock's.
( ii ) Mechanics / Lock mechanism
The mechanical means of both holding back the drawn string and releasing it for shooting has become known as the lock mechanism and the key or trigger. The earliest examples employed a spanning notch and a rising pin that was attached to the lever - like trigger and was produced in wood. This method was only suitable for bows with a lower and hence less powerful draw-weight, its dependence on physically levering and pushing the string from the spanning notch limited its use. However this is not to underestimate the power of a crossbow shot with this mechanism, as a surviving 14th c. rampart crossbow of this type is to be found in the collection of the National museum of Sweden. Moreover it may represent what was the prevalent type of lock mechanism throughout the middle- ages.
The latter part of the 12th c. saw the first significant improvements to the crossbow with the introduction of a new form of lock mechanism. (Diagram 1) However this took another half century to come into general use.
Diagram 1. Cross-section of late 12th C. mechanism.
This consisted of the nut and a long trigger. The cylindrical release nut [1] was made of bone, horn, iron and even wood. The release nut has two lateral slots on its top side, to seat both the string and the end of the bolt. This took the form of Mo fingers or claws. Beneath this a slot was shaped to take the end of the trigger and was often reinforced. [2] The nut then sat in a specially shaped seat in the top of the stock that may also have been reinforced. Plates were later added to the sides as additional reinforcement in Bone, horn or iron. The shaped trigger lever [3] had two bends, which was held in place By a pin [4] and acted as a sear -bar to the nut. The bolt was held in place between the fingers of the nut. By 1368 an additional clamp was introduced in the form of a spring plate to keep the bolt in place when the crossbow was aimed to the ground. It has been suggested that earlier crossbowman used a pitch will or resin to "gum" the bolt into the slot on the stock. This must have improved the weapons usefulness as a means of defending fortifications and castles.
(iii) The Bow
The bow or prod, Iathe or limbs are both the means of storage of and motive force that shoots the projectile from the tiller. The earliest bows were produced as simple or selfbows and were made from a single piece of wood. The woods employed in the making of the bow varied from region to region and indeed from manufacturer to manufacturer. Each would have had a particular wood of choice that ranged from Yew, Ash, Willow and Witch Elm. An all wood bow must become large and clumsy to be able to provide the power required for an efficient and effective crossbow; a bow found at Friburg measured some 13 ft. Average lengths are around 3 feet.
However the selfbow must have been one of the more common (and cheaper) crossbow types throughout the period, there often being twice as many selfbows to other bow's types in surviving records.
A 13th.C one piece yew bow from Berkhampstead castle (Diagram 2), now in the British museum is some 123cm long and has a draw weight of l50lbs.
Diagram 2. Yew lathe with a straight top edge
A large and powerful rampart crossbow with a yew bow in Sweden dates to the 15th C. The middle of the 12th C. saw the introduction of a new technology for the production of the bow, of possible Asiatic origin, the composite or horn bow.
The composite bow was possibly introduced into Europe from the Crusades to Syria and Palestine; indeed the Crusader armies faced Arab troops armed with such weapons. This theory is reinforced by the first recorded crossbow maker in England 1205 as Peter the Saracen however crossbows were being fitted with composite bows at various places in Europe during this period. They were used by the Byzantine Empire, the Huns and the Moslems in Spain.
Early 13th C. Composite bow. Castile
Composite bows are the combination of three materials each with its own quality for producing the spring and power. Although exact methods of manufacture and materials used varied from region to region and maker to make composite bows share a common method of construction. This consists of a core of wood reinforced by a layer of ox, ram or goats’ horn or whale Bone and backed By layers of sinew from the necks or back legs of oxen or horses.
The horn or whale Bone was often cut into strips after being boiled and flattened straight. Each slice was then scored with a series of saw marks or cuts to provide a friction surface that was glued together.
The sinews would Be split and then hammered out like lint into a bundle of fine threads and applied with layers of glue similar to modern glass fiber and resin techniques.
Thus you had a composite material that had the natural springiness of the wood, the compression strength of the horn and the elasticity of the sinew. Bows of this type produced draw weights of 380 to 420 lbs. The means of gluing these materials, all of which are natural substances, made them prone to adverse performance in damp or wet conditions. Torsella or Marino Sanuto stated this in his address to the Pope in 1321 for a crusade. Traditional natural glues required drying time of some 6 to 12 months that may have been a factor that increased the cost of such bows to twice that of the cheapest selfbow.
Steel was also used, forged as a spring and could be used to produce a powerful crossbow to compete with the strength and draw weight of composite bows. The use of steel is first recorded in 1314. However the steel limbed crossbow remained in the minority throughout this period, only becoming more popular after 1425.
The bow was attached to the tiller by a lashing of sinews or cords that went through a hole in the tiller behind the bow. This also secured the stirrup to the tiller. The bow was attached at a slight angle to the tiller so as the two ends of the limbs with the knocks sat slightly higher than the bed of the tiller. This reduced friction and wear on the string.
The total weight of a battle crossbow averages between 15 -16 lbs (6.8-7.25 kgs)
(iv) Strings
The string for a crossbow was often produced by a different craftsman than the rest of the weapon. Made from a cord than consisted of a single thread it was wound around two points to produce anything up to 200 strands for a heavy war string. The threads were of linen or hemp. Each thread is impregnated with bees wax to provide a barrier against moisture. The ends of this hank were then served into the loops for the knocks at the end of the bow limbs. The hank was then twisted to produce the required length and thickness and it was then loosely served by another thread along its whole length again the finished string was bees waxed. The centre of the string was often served with another length of thread to reduce wear on the part that engaged the fingers of the nut and the end of the bolt.
A major part in producing an accurate and powerful crossbow is the correct weight and hence speed of the string. The more powerful bows require the heaviest and thus slowest of strings. The power of a large composite crossbows was such that a secondary string was used in combination with a large spanning Bench. This employed a windlass to draw the limbs of the bow back for it to be strung.
(V) Means and Methods of spanning
The earliest method of drawing the string (spanning) was to place the feet against the belly of the bow either side of the tiller, hold the string with both hands and pull it back into the spanning notch. This was done either standing upright with the butt under the arm or with a more powerful crossbow it was necessary to sit upon the ground with the legs straight before the shooter; leaning backwards to draw the string into the notch. See the illustration on page 4. To protect the inner sides of the fingers a leather finger-stall was often used in Europe when spanning a crossbow by this means. By the end of the 12th C. the metal foot - loop was introduced, being held to the tiller by lashings of cords or sinews. It is often called a stirrup and resembles the early horse stirrup and may have evolved from such. The stirrup's introduction is contemporary with the change to the nut as a means of releasing the string, Crossbows are often recorded as one foot and two foot types and this may refer to the size of the stirrup, literally allowing either one or both feet to Be placed in the stirrup.
French Infantry. Mid 14th C. Crossbow being spanned with foot stirrup.
The increase in the size and strength of the bow led to the development of various means for spanning the string. First recorded in 1180 by Mardi at-Tarsusi was the use of the spanning belt and claw, this was called la clef during the 13th C. First used alone the spanning claw, basically an iron hook, had a grip at its upper end to allow both hands to hold the claw that was then used to draw up the string into the spanning notch. This would allow greater purchase upon the string than fingers alone. Combined with the spanning belt in the form of a stout leather strap, the belt had its ends attached to an iron, ring from which the hook was attached. The crossbow was loaded by the shooter leaning forward or going down on one knee and catching the string (which is held towards the shooter) in the claw. The claw was later developed into a form that had two hooks side By side. The shooter then simply stood up to span the string with the tiller held to the floor with one or two feet placed in the stirrup. This was the most common method of spanning a crossbow during the early medieval period.
Late 13th C. Catalonian. The first crossbowman has a spanning hook.
The increase in strength and the size of crossbows led to the development of mechanical methods of spanning the string. Mentioned as purchases in 1239 at Acre and at Piacenza in 1269 and in general use by the end of the 13th c. was the windlass, as recorded as a sale by Simone Vatacio in Genoa 1287.
The windlass was a wooden spoke or cylinder that was turned by one or more spanning Bars transversely fixed or slid into holes drilled through the cylinder. These bars may have been the original tool that is now referred to as a spanner. The windlass was attached to the butt of the tiller via a wooden and / or iron socket. The cylinder had one or more ropes attached which were in turn attached to a spanning hook. The rope was wound around the cylinder and thus drew back the crossbow string as the rope shortened. A system of pulleys was probably used for the larger rampart crossbows. Another type of windlass used a wooden cut worm gear to draw back the string.
Cumbria 1316.
Large rampart crossbow and windlass mounted on the tower during a siege.
In the mid-14th C. a new system for spanning the crossbow came into use throughout Europe, the goat's toot lever or Bender. The Bender was a lever in the form of two claws, handle and short lever's with spanning hooks. The claws of the Bender were placed against an iron Bar or lugs attached to the tiller just behind the lock. The hooks caught the string as the lever was drawn back. They remained in use into the 15th c.
The last quarter of the 14th C. saw the development of the Samson belt a combination of the spanning belt, claw and a single or double pulley. The end of the rope attached to a small hook underneath the tiller and the claw that was part of the pulley, through which the rope ran spanned the crossbow string.
The English Windlass was a combination of windlass and pulley that evolved during the latter part of the 14th C. They were very common after 1430 in Burgundy. It is characterized by the box section that fits over the butt of the tiller for spanning and evolved from the means of spanning the largest of rampart crossbows. The windlass is often turned by the means of a pair of cranks as opposed to Bars which was a simplification for the spanning of hand crossbows.
Large selfbow, Aragon Early 12th C. (left)
Shooting and spanning crossbows
Lombardy 1340 (right)
III. BOLTS
(i) Numbers produced, issued and carried.
Surviving records indicate that a large number of bolts were produced, stored and issued during the medieval period. These have been detailed in part I.
The number of bolts that were issued to each crossbowman varies from source to source throughout the period, This is illustrated By the ordinances of Charles VIII of France who recommends 18 bolts per man, that of Theobald, Count of Champagne in 1256 at 50 bolts per man. Northern European sources require 3 dozen bolts per man, although the Prussian Hanse towns sent a shock of 60 bolts per man in 1395. It may be assumed that on average 18 bolts were carried per man.
The large number of bolts produced were stored in chests, within a bolt room in a castle that was laid aside for this purpose, it became usual to reckon bolts by the chest. These chests contained at least 200 – 250 bolts.
On campaign the bolts were carried in kegs, caskets or barrels. These contained an average of 800 bolts. Guillame Guiart in 1303 stated that these were carried on campaign in carts, along with the crossbows.
(ii) Types of bolts, heads and uses.
Although the bolt evolved from the arrow it soon became specialized with the characteristics required for it to be shot accurately from the crossbow. The length of the bolt depends on the length of the limbs of the bow and the distance from the front end of the tiller to the spanning notch or nut. As the selfbows were replaced with the smaller composite/horn bows then the length of the bolt was reduced, as the distance from the front to the nut became some 15-20cm. Surviving 13th C. bolts, excavated at Aranas, the citadel of Yorkel Knutsson have short tipped rhomboidal heads with sockets some 6.5cm long. It has been suggested that the one-foot and two foot crossbow actually refers to the length of the bolt to Be shot. A wide variety of heads were developed for the hunting of virtually all types of game and many would be used as war bolts.
Armor piercing bolt 14th C. Ireland (left)
Barbed bolt head, bent after striking armor? -+ 14th C. Ireland (right)
The shafts were often made of oak with either parallel sides or were tapered either towards the head, to the flights or both. There is reference to a type of draw-plate being used in 1417 'two irons to drive bolt-shafts through'. The center of gravity had a l 22 to be at the correct point on the bolt to ensure it shot accurately over distance. For bolts up to 35cm long this was exactly one-third of the length of the shaft, for longer shafts it was a quarter of the length of the shaft. The shafts had small slivers removed to correct the center of balance. The end of the shaft was tapered to fit between the fingers of the nut and to Be of the same thickness of the string, from 1..2 -1..3 cm. Surviving bolts weigh an average of 65g to 70g. They were produced either without the heads which were then fitted by a different craftsman, or they were produced complete.
The 14th C. bolt mostly had a socketed short, rhomboidal sectioned heavy war head that was known as the quadrel, quarrel, qudrell, quariaux, querel, carrel, caruaux or vireton. This means a four sided head that rotates in flight. The expression "to pick a quarrel" is said to have come down from the medieval crossbowman, meaning to shoot someone specifically with this warhead, testifying to its effectiveness. Other bolts were fitted with long, thin dart like heads with tangs, whilst others had triangular heads, points and section Specialist heads were developed for presumably different types of armor penetration; to counter the varies of armor found on the medieval battlefield. Blunt practice bolts were produced, called balcanelle. Fire arrows were also developed to be shot from the crossbow. These were often longer bolts with a slender barbed tip that allowed the incendiary material to be wrapped around it. Fire arrows are also illustrated with broad barbed triangular heads. Bolts were also used as projectile's from the earliest of hand guns and cannons. Steel bolts were also occasionally used.
Armor-piercing bolt head. 13th C. Slovakia
Ballista head 12th - 14th c. Slovakia
(iii) Flights
Unlike the arrows of the bow crossbow bolts were fletched with a number of different materials. There is illustrated evidence of flights being made from the flight feathers of birds, probably Goose feathers as per longbow arrows. Bolt flights were fletched with strips of leather, slivers of wood, parchment, or even thin sheets of copper. Alternative materials were used to avoid the flights from being stripped off the shaft as it was shot from the more powerful crossbows. Some of the largest and heaviest bolts for rampart crossbows have no flights at all.
The bolts had either two or three flights. Bolts with two flights had them fletched to sit against the top of the tiller. These were often set at a slight angle, or spirally to each other to impart a rotating motion in the bolt during flight. This improves accuracy over distance.
lV. QUIVERERS, ARMOUR, ACCESSORIES.
Bolts are often illustrated in manuscripts being carried in a quiver slung from a belt and hanging at the side. The quiver is often tapering slightly so that the neck is narrower than the base they were made in leather, possibly by saddle or shield makers, and sometimes covered in hair from a pelt. They were also made of wood. Crossbows were often bought complete with a quiver to hold the bolts.
Most period illustrations after the 12th C. show crossbowmen wearing some form of armor. As many were trained professional soldiers who understood only too well the deadly power of these weapons it is understandable why they choose to be encumbered with the weight of a helm and body armor. Many are shown wearing mail hauberks, gambersons or aketons and a variety of helmets with bacinets and kettle hats being more numerous. Scenes depicting sieges also show crossbowmen wearing the full-face great helms as favored by the mounted knights.
Crossbowman 1250 France.
He is equipped with a kettle hat and quilted gambeson.
Note spanning hook belt and quiver for bolts.
Accounts for the supply of crossbows also mention accessories. These included rings, belts and hooks. Baldrics are also mentioned, presumably to allow the crossbow to be carried across the back whilst on the march. Swords are also included. Crossbowmen also favored large, free-standing shields called a pavise, particularly whilst employed at a siege. This provided cover from which to load and shoot from behind.
Two fully armored crossbowmen,
Depicted at a siege in Flanders early 14th C.
German sources note the use of a bench from which to shoot a rampart crossbow. This may have been a wooden stand to rest and aim from behind the battlements or in towers whilst defending fortifications.
Crossbow companies were also raised as mounted units and the horse tack, harness, saddle etc. may also be included as accessories.
Mounted crossbowman.
Flanders. 14th C.
V. PERFORMANCE of CROSSBOWS.
(i) Range
The main consideration whilst comparing the range of the crossbow to that of the long bow is the way the projectile is cast from the weapon, arrows from a hand bow are clout shot, that is they are aimed at a 45 degree angle to achieve maximum range and thus are "rained down" upon the target. The bolt from a crossbow is shot directly at the target in a flat trajectory, a symptom of its accuracy" Range must also be considered as a variant of the size and type of crossbow and the materials used to make the lathe. This is usually expressed as the draw weight of the bow. The shorter, heavier bolt has a higher ballistic coefficient than the arrow allowing the crossbow to shoot further and hit harder than the hand bow. There is also a difference between what is considered effective range and maximum range. Skeletons excavated from the site of the battle of Visby 1361 have been identified as those of Danish crossbowmen. In a number of the skulls are holes where a bolt has gone straight through, attesting to the power of the crossbow at effective range.
Great helm of the 14th C. German or Italian.
Considered as the knights response to the
Increasing power of the crossbow
Most medieval warfare was hand to hand fighting using a variety of close quarter weapons. Effective range was often considered 100 paces, although a bolt could pierce armor at 200 yards. The lines of defense characteristic of the Edwardian concentric, castles of the 13th C. are all planned and placed within the effective range of the crossbow.
(ii) Accuracy
The main advantage of the crossbow is its consistent accuracy. The configuration of the tiller allows the shooter to aim before losing the bolt without suffering the strain of keeping the bow spanned whilst doing so. The accuracy of the crossbow has been enshrined in the tale of William Tell, shooting the apple from his sons head. The efficiency of the crossbow in terms of accuracy is governed by it being well maintained.
(iii) Rate of shooting
The crossbow has always been maligned for its slow rate of fire compared to the rapid shooting of the longbow. The competent archer can shoot over a dozen arrows a minute. The crossbow, spanned with the belt and hook can shoot 3 to 5 bolts a minute this drops to about 1 bolt a minute when spanning the bow with a windlass. Large rampart crossbows may have had a much slower rate of fire. A number of period illustrations show the crossbowman holding a bolt ready for shooting in his mouth whilst spanning the weapon a technique that allows for the rapid placing and shooting of the bolt. The huge number of bolts supplied for various campaigns indicates that the crossbow, whilst not particularly fast in shooting could sustain a continual hail of bolts over a protracted period of time, another advantage in a siege.
(iv) Historical data and reference.
Published data on the performance of original medieval crossbows of the western European type comes from the work of Sir Ralph Payne-Galway in 'The Crossbow' 1906.
Three 15th C. crossbows were tested, all with steel bows
Weight Bow length Draw length Draw Weight Range
A 8.16 kg 97.2 cm 7.78 cm 544.3 kg 450 yrds
B 7.3 kg 80 cm 15.24 cm unknown 390 yrds
C 35 kg 76.2 cm 15.24 cm unknown 350 yrds
Payne-Gallwey carried out an experiment in the autumn of 1901 where he successfully shot bolts across the Menai Straits from the battery at Fort Belan to Abermenai Point a distance of 450 yards.
During the medieval period the English longbowmen were capable of shooting an arrow up to 300 yards, that is at extreme range and was considered exceptional
(v) Medieval Crossbows as Reconstruction's
Modern reconstructions of medieval crossbows and subsequent ballistic tests have shown that they were actually very inefficient designs. The heavier war bolt achieves about the same velocity of 130 - 140 feet per second from a 700 lb draw crossbow as an arrow from an 80 lb draw longbow. The initial velocity imparted to a crossbow bolt is governed by the velocity of the bow tips as the bolt and string part company. Despite their heavy draw weights, medieval lathes were too massive to accelerate rapidly. This was made worse by short draw lengths, which reduced the time available for the tips to accelerate. In addition the heavy bowstrings required for such massive draw weights robbed energy from the bolt.
In comparison modern hunting crossbows are engineered to launch 400+ grain bolts at initial velocities in excess of 200 feet per second, with draw weights of about 150 lbs. The longer power stroke with a less massive fiberglass lath makes the difference. There are a number of manufacturers who produce accurate reproduction medieval crossbows - including the author. A short list is included in the Appendix.
Reproduction crossbows may be seen at demonstrations and battle re-enactments by a number of medieval re-enactment Society's-, again a short list is included in the Appendix.
VI. The Deployment and Role of the Crossbow in the early medieval army.
Crossbowmen served in a number of different roles within the early medieval army:
· Defense of castles.
· Defense of towns and cities.
· Besieging castles, towns and cities.
· Serving alongside naval crews aboard ship.
· Acting as "marines'' from aboard ship.
· Armed escorts for masons, woodcutters, supply columns.
· Protection of work parties building defenses, cutting roads, ditches etc.
· Front line screen before cavalry - an 'elite' status.
· Supporting missile fire between two men-at-arms.
· Mounted as Dragoons or as lifeguards.
· Deployed on the wings of other foot soldiers.
· In the Van of the army.
Crossbows in siege and
At sea in the crusades
Circa 1280.
With the crossbow having such a wide range of roles in the early medieval army it is important to access its decline in favor of the Longbow in English armies after the 13th C, There were a number of factors that contributed to its gradual decline in favor of the "crooked stick". The crossbow was the height of military technology during the middle ages until the advent of the cannon and hand gun. Therefore it was a relatively expensive weapon to produce, requiring a number of specialist craftsmen in the process.
The crossbowman himself would require the knowledge and still to maintain the weapon in a fit condition for active service. A certain amount of training and drill was required within the company to produce an effective military unit that could keep up an efficient rate of fire on the battlefield. This led to the crossbowman being a specialized professional soldier who demanded a higher price than other foot troops, often coming from abroad with all the additional logistical costs of recruiting overseas. English Kings had been plagued by foreign mercenary soldiers for centuries, and were forbidden from employing them by the Magna Carta; 1215, which mentions crossbowmen. The introduction of the longbow can thus be seen as a semi-political move by the monarchy, it allowed the English army to field an effective missile arm without having to resort to the expense of foreign professional troop’s se6ng within the Kingdom, who could pose a threat to their employer once hostilities had ceased. Hence we see records of crossbowmen being paid their passage home after the welsh wars of Edward I. Therefore we may state that the ascendancy of the longbow was a politically and financially driven process as opposed to a development in the effectiveness of the weapon.
And the crossbowmen true and good,
Thou shooter with the faultless wood,
Haste, with thy stirrup-fashioned bow,
To lay the hideous varlet low.
David-ap-Gwilym
Appendix
List of manufacturers of medieval crossbows:-
In the U.K.:
Andrew Кirkham. Medieval Craftsman. Telephone: 01709 540390
Robin Knight. Period Crossbows. Telephone: 01795 427461
Gary Ball. Harlech Medieval Society. Telephone: 01938 820684
Abroad:
By The Sword. Dark-age to Medieval Crossbows
http: //www.by-the-sword.com/crossbows.html
Re-enactment Societies who demonstrate and use reproduction medieval crossbows:
Harlech Medieval Society: Telephone: 01766 522089
The Courteneye Household and Companie Telephone: 01326 562908
Medieval Siege Society. Telephone: 020 85923621
Modern re-constructions of medieval crossbows.
14th C. War bow with steel prod and 15th C. Rampart crossbow with English windlass.
Chronology of Development with Notable Dates from Main Text
341 BC. First record of crossbow at battle of Ma-Ling in China.
228BC. Bronze lock mechanism from tomb of Yu Wang.
100 AD. Heron of Alexandria describes gastraphetes.
300-700 Roman carvings of crossbows.
947 Crossbows used at the Siege of Senlis
11th C. Groove in tiller
1066 Normans re-introduce crossbows to England.
1096 Anna Commena describes Norman crossbows.
1100 William II killed by crossbow
1100-1200 Nut mechanism and composite lath developed
1139 Lateran Council Bans crossbows amongst Christians.
1192 Crusader victory at Jaffa aided by crossbows
1199 Richard I killed by crossbow bolt. 1205 First record of crossbow maker in England
1277, 1298 Gascon mercenary crossbowmen employed By Edward I in Wales. r
1314 First steel lathe recorded
1346 Genoese crossbowmen defeated at Crecy
1368 First reference to bolt clips fitted to crossbows.
1373 Earliest illustration of cranequin
1405 French crossbowmen land in Wales
Crossbowmen at siege in scale armor with pavise Castile late 13e c.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
t. The Grey Goose Wing. E.G.Heath. Osprey 1971
2. Crossbows. Frank Bilson. David and Charks 1974
3. The Welsh Wars of Edward I. J.E. Morris Sutton 1996
4. Medieval Warfare. H.W. Koch Bisen Books Ltd 1978
5. Ancient Armor and Weapons. John Hewitt Braken Books 1996
6. Armies of Feudal Europe. Ian Heath W.R.G Publication 1989
7. European Crossbows: A Survey Josef Alun Royal Armouries Museum 1994
8. Every One a Witness : Plantagenet Age A.F. Scott Purnell Book Services Ltd. 1975
9. The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a social and political history N.J.G. Pounds Cambridge University Press 1990
10. Arms and Armor of the Crusading Era 1050-1350 Vo1.1 D.Nicolle Greenhill Books. 1999
11. Medieval Warfare : A History Ed. M.Keen oxford University Press 1999
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