Special Colloquial Vocabulary
LECTURE 5. THE STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY
- Language as a system.
- Classification of the English vocabulary.
- Neutral words.
- Special literary vocabulary
a) terms;
b) archaic words;
c) historisms;
d) barbarisms and foreign words;
e) nonce-words;
f) poetic words.
- Special colloquial vocabulary
a) slang;
b) jargonisms;
c) professionalisms;
d) vulgarisms.
In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word stock (запас слов) of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. The main bulk (объем) of words is stylistically neutral. These are the words which denote things surrounding us in our everyday life, their qualities and properties (man, land, house, to see, white, etc.). These neutral words are contrasted to stylistically coloured words which are suitable only in specific spheres and are suggestive of this or that style.
e.g. female, to hell with smb.
But neutral words don’t always preserve their neutrality: horse, ass, heifer /’hefə/ ( телка ).
Classification of the EV
Formal Vocabulary (bookish, literary)
General literary words special literary words
terms, foreign words and barbarisms ,
poetic words, archaic words
Informal Vocabulary (col.)
Col.: literary low colloquial familiar
Slang: general
special cant (жаргон, арго)
professionalisms
jargonisms
Vulgarisms
Dialectisms
Neutral words form the bulk of the English vocabulary. Neutral words are used both in literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Most neutral words in English are of monosyllabic character, as, in the process of development from OE to Modern English, most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word. The following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist between the neutral, literary and colloquial words in the English language.
Colloquial Neutral Literary
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kid child infant
daddy father parent
chap fellow associate (приятель)
get out go away retire
go ahead continue proceed
teenager boy (girl) youth
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al words Poetical words
Poetical words
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Common colloquial vocabulary borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary which falls out of Standard English.
Some of the lexical items belonging to common colloquial vocabulary are close to the non-standard colloquial groups such as jargonisms, professionalisms, etc.
The spoken language abounds in set expressions which are colloquial in character: e.g. all sorts of things, just a bit, How is life treating you?, so-so. What time do you make it?, to be sick and tired of, to be up to something.
Special literary vocabulary
a) Terms
A term is generally very easily coined and easily accepted. Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. Terms know no isolation: they always come in clusters, either in a text on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries which, unlike general dictionaries, make a careful selection of terms. Taken all together, these clusters of terms form the system of names. Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the required concept. Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. Therefore we may say that they belong to the scientific style. But their use is not confined to this style. They may as well appear in other styles – in newspaper, publicistic, belles-lettres style and practically in all other existing styles. The function of terms is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions.
In literature terms may create different effects:
1. When the use of terms doesn’t contradict the subject matter, a realistic background is created, a true to life atmosphere of science or industrial life is conveyed.
2. When the use of terms contradicts the context, the subject matter, a comical effect is created. This device was often used by O. Henry.
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When words that were once terms have gradually lost their qualities as terms and have passed into the common literary vocabulary, this process may be called “de-terminization”. Such words as radio, television, and the like have long been in common use and their terminological character is no longer evident.
b) Archaic words
We distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words:
1). The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent ( устаревающие ), i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. In English these are the pronouns – thou ( ты ) and its forms thee ( тебя , тебе ), thy ( твой ) and thine ( твой ), the pronoun ye (you).
2). The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community, e.g. methinks (=It seems to me); nay (=no). These words are called obsolete ( устаревшие ).
3). The third group which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in Modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e.g. troth= faith, a losel – a worthless, lazy fellow. The border lines between the groups are not distinct. They interpenetrate. It is especially difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words.
There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic words. Words of this type never disappear from the language. They are historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of society. Historical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms.
c) Historisms – words denoting things out of use. They: 1. create the historical atmosphere; 2. create elevation; 3. produce a terminological function; 4. produce a comical effect.
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Examples of historisms: yeoman /joumən/ ( йомен , фермер средней руки , мелкий землевладелец ), goblet /’goblit/ бокал , кубок , baldric /’bo:ldrik/ перевязь , портупея , mace /meis/ булава , жезл , мазик ( бильярд ).
d) Barbarisms and foreign words
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. Most of the barbarisms have corresponding English synonyms, e.g. chic (stylish, fashionable), bon mot /bon ‘mou/ (a witty saying).
Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are part and parcel of the English word stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary.
Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary. In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.
There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfil a terminological function. Therefore, though they still retain their foreign appearance, they should not be regarded as barbarisms. Such words as ukase, udarnik, kolkhoz, perestroika and the like denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality not familiar to English speaking communities. There are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained. Such words as solo, tenor, concerto, blitzkrieg, Luftwaffe and the like should also be distinguished from barbarisms. They are different not only in their functions but in their nature as well. They are terms. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms; barbarisms, on the contrary, may have almost exact synonyms.
Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of language with various aims, aims which predetermine their typical functions:
1. They create realistic atmosphere.
2. They supply local colour which may be external and internal. By external local colour we understand portraying the local scene, setting, background. By internal local colour we understand the psychological, temperamental and moral characteristics of the people’s portrayal.
3. They elevate the language. The unusual sounding of such words helps to make the utterance exalted, solemn.
4. They produce comical effect, especially in the so-called macaronic poems (foreign words are introduced in the poem together with native).
e) Nonce-words – another type of neologisms. Nonce-word– is a word coined to suit one particular occasion. They are created to designate /z/ (определять, устанавливать) some insignificant subjective idea or evaluation of a thing or phenomenon. They remain in the language as constant manifestations of its power of word-building, e.g. Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled , and aunted , and cousined within an inch of my life.
f) Poetic(al) words. Poetic words are used primarily in poetry. Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some syntactical peculiarities and a certain number of special words. The special poetic vocabulary has a marked tendency to detach itself from the common literary word stock and assume a special significance. Poetic words do not present a homogeneous group, they include archaic words, such as whilom(e) /’wailəm/ ( некогда , когда - то ); ne /ne/ не , ни ; leman /‘lemən/ возлюбленный ; quoth /kwouӨ/ - промолвил - from cwethan - to speak (1 и 3 л. прошедшего времени ), eftsoons /eft’su:nz/ (eftsona – again, soon after ) опять , снова .
It must be remembered that not all English poetry makes use of poetical terms. In the history of English literature there were periods which were characterized by protests against the use of conventional symbols. The literary trends known as classicism and romanticism were particularly rich in fresh poetic terms.
Poetic words are not freely built in contrast to neutral, colloquial and common literary words or terms. The commonest means is by compounding, e.g. young-eyed, often-used. There is however one means of creating new poetic words still recognized as productive even in present-day English, i.e. the use of a contracted form of a word instead of the full one, e.g. drear /iə/ instead of dreary ( мрачный ), scant (scanty) ( скудный ). Sometimes the reverse process leads to the birth of a poetism, e.g. vasty (vast) громадный (the vasty deep ocean), steepy (steep) крутой , paly (pale).
Poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poetisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.
Special Colloquial Vocabulary
Slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English. Webster’s “New World Dictionary of the American language” gives the following meanings of the term:
1. originally, the specialized vocabulary and idioms of criminals, tramps (бродяги), the purpose of which was to disguise from outsiders the meaning of what was said; now usually called cant ( жаргон , арго , тайный язык ).
2. the specialized vocabulary and idioms of those in the same work, way of life; now usually called shoptalk ( тюремный жаргон ), argot /’a:gou/ ( арго , жаргон ), jargon.
3. colloquial language that is outside of conventional or standard usage and consists of both coined words (blurb – рекламное объявление на обложке ) and those with new or extended meanings (rubber neck – зевака , любопытный человек ); sap( живительная влага , кровь , сок ). Slang develops from the attempt to find fresh and vigorous, colourful, pungent (пикантный , едкий ), or humorous expression, and generally either passes into disuse or comes to have a more formal status.
The New Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as follows:
a) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type;
b) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period;
c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.
Eric Partridge defines slang like this: “Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech.”
The following stylistic layers of words are generally marked as slang:
- Words which may be classed as thieves’ cant or the jargons of other social groups and professions, like dirt = money, dotty ( нетвердый на ногах ) = mad, a barker = a gun, to dance = to hang.
- Colloquial words and phrases like for good, a show (at the theatre), etc. It is indeed sometimes impossible to distinguish between a colloquial word and one which we shall agree to call a jargonism or a professionalism, or one belonging to any other of the non-literary layers. Such words as chink (money), fishy (suspicious), governor (father) and many others are in some dictionaries given with two notations, coll. and/or sl.
- Figurative words and phrases are not infrequently regarded as slang and included in special slang dictionaries, e.g. Scrooge = a mean person; shark = a swindler ( мошенник , жулик ); blackcoat = a clergyman.
- Abbreviations – rep (reputation); cig (cigarette); ad (advertisement); flu (influenza); sis (sister); ma (mama).
- Set expressions – to go in for; in a way.
- Improprieties ( неуместности ) of a morphological and syntactical character: I don’t know nothing. How come, I says.
- New coinages: leggo (let go), sarge (sergeant), a date (rendez-vous, meeting).
There are many kinds of slang: Cockney, public-house, commercial, society, military, theatrical, parliamentary.
Jargonisms .
Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. The traditional meaning of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance. Jargonisms may be defined as a code within a code.
The word grease means money, loaf means head, a tiger hunter is a gambler.
The following jargons are well known in English: the jargon of thieves (generally known as cant); the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army; the jargon of sportsmen, etc.
Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code. It is easily understood by people and is only regarded as something not quite regular.
Professionalisms – are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professional words name anew already existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code.
Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group belonging to the literary layer of words. Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common social interests. Examples of professionalisms: tin-fish = submarine; block-buster ( бомба большого калибра ; дорогостоящий фильм , отличающийся пышностью постановки ) = a bomb which is used to destroy blocks of big buildings; piper = a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-pipe.
Dialectal words – are those which in the process of integration of the national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. There is a definite similarity of functions in the use of slang, Cockney and any other form of non-literary English and that of dialectal words. All these groups when used in emotive prose are meant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, education. There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from colloquial words.
lass – a girl or a beloved girl;
lad – a boy or a young man;
hinny – honey; naething = nothing.
Vulgar words.
A vulgarism according to Webster’s Dictionary is a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial or unrefined (грубый) or low speech. Vulgarisms – swear words, obscene words: damn, bloody, son of a bitch, to hell.
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s “New International Dictionary” defines vulgarism as “a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech”.
I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions.
There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene ones, are called “four-letter” words. A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and they sometimes appear in euphemistic spelling.
The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.
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