Condensed microstructure: headword and information are aligned
Unit 2. Dictionaries
INTRODUCTION
Although dictionaries started as authoritative reference works, contemporary dictionaries are essentially descriptive rather than prescriptive, and are not fixed, ultimate sources of information. In other words, there is no such thing as the dictionary. Rather, dictionaries are competitive commercial products and, therefore, there are as many types of dictionaries as potential consumers. The differences among dictionaries are visible in all their dimensions: from their different aims and goals to the different ways in which information is organized throughout their pages. The following sections deal with the structure of dictionaries and the types available in the market.
THE STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE OF DICTIONARIES
Dictionaries are reference books, which means that people do not read them from beginning to end, but use them to find information about words. In this regard, dictionaries are a specific book genre and, as happens with any other genre, are
• designed taking into account different types of readers/users, and
• characterized by a typical textual structure and use of language.
Regarding structure, dictionaries organize information in a way that their potential users can understand and follow easily. The textual organization of dictionaries has to do with their contents or components, their order in the book and the relationships between them. This organization covers four main types of structure: megastructure, macrostructure, mesostructure and microstructure.
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2.1 Megastructure
The megastructure of a dictionary refers to its global structure, i.e., the way it is organized physically, and includes all the sections into which the dictionary is organized (for instance, as happens with the sections and chapters of any other book). These sections include the following:
• A lemma list. This is the main body of the dictionary and refers to all the words compiled in it. For instance, the bilingual dictionary shown in the picture is organized in two parts (Diccionario espaсol-inglйs and Diccionario inglйs-espaсol) that correspond to two lemma lists. In contrast, a monolingual dictionary only offers one lemma list.
• The sections that come before and after the lemma list, known as the dictionary’s front matter (the sections before the lemma list) and back matter (the sectionsafter the lemma list).
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The front and back matters are important components of dictionaries in that they offer explanations about the dictionary and its correct use. This information may be concerned with the dictionary or with the language(s) it covers. Thus, together with the publishing information and/or information shown on the front and back covers, dictionaries offer sections where we can find:
• introduction or preface explaining the characteristics and purposes of the dictionary, its intended users, the data used for compiling it, etc.
• table of contents
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• users’ guide or instructions on how to use the dictionary and how to locate the information in it, the conventions used in the words’ entries, etc.
• grammatical information
• list of abbreviations (e.g. adj., cont.) and symbols (e.g. ☞ ‘see’, ♀ ‘female’)
• list of prefixes and suffixes
• list of irregular verbs
• transliteration tables with the alphabets covered in the dictionary (e.g. Chinese, Arabic etc.)
• conversion tables (e.g. weights and units of measure)
• illustrations
• bibliography
Which of these sections are dictionary-related, which are language-related, and which are culture-related?
Many people use their dictionary without reading its front and back matters. However, in order to make the most of your dictionary, you need to become familiarized with its structure and the information it offers.
2.2 Macrostructure
The macrostructure of a dictionary concerns the way words are organized within its main body, that is, the order and relationships between the lemmas of the dictionary’s lemma list. This organization falls into two main types according to whether words are organized according to their form (alphabetical or onomasiological organization) or according to their meaning (thematic or semasiological organization).
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2.2.1 Alphabetical macrostructure
Conventional dictionaries present their words in alphabetical order, that is, follow what linguists call an onomasiological (from Greek фnomasн(a) meaning ‘name’, ‘expression’) or formal approach. This organization allows users to locate words easily within dictionaries.
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Alphabetical macrostructures may be more or less strict, and this depends on the dictionary’s type of user. For instance, general-purpose dictionaries are characterized by a strict alphabetical macrostructure since the only use requirement is to know the spelling of words (and, in some cases, just their beginning). They arrange words alphabetically and in the form of a list. On the other hand, monolingual dictionaries designed for language learners are often less strict, and usually group words or lemmas in horizontal clusters (niches and nests). The words in these clusters are often shown together in the same entry where they arearranged morphologically, since this is regarded as an effective way of understanding words and, therefore, of learning vocabulary.
Look up the word slide in your dictionary and describe its entry.
2.2.2 Thematic macrostructure
Although alphabetical ordering helps finding words in a dictionary, it may also hide relations among lexical items. For instance, both tub and vat refer to large open vessels for holding liquids and, therefore, are synonyms in many contexts. However, the entry of tub is in the T section of dictionaries and the entry of vat is in the V section. I order to avoid this, some dictionaries follow a semasiological (from Greek sēmasн(a) meaning ‘signal’, ‘meaning’) approach and present a systematic macrostructure. Examples of dictionaries that organize their words following a semasiological or thematic order technical dictionaries and thesauri
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(singular: thesaurus). For instance, if you look up tub in a thesaurus, you may find a –very basic– definition (‘cylindrical container’) together with a list of related words (vat, vessel, butt, tank or tun), all of them in the same entry.
Which type of macrostructure do you think is easier or more comfortable? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each macrostructure.
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Dictionaries try to overcome the problems caused by alphabetical ordering by inserting cross-references of various sorts among related words. These cross-references belong to the mesostructure of dictionaries.
2.3 Mesostructure
Dictionaries also include cross-references, that is, indicators that take users from one place to another within the dictionary, often to supplement or expand the information provided on a given word or lemma. The mesostructure of a dictionary (also referred to as mediostructure or cross-reference structure) refers to the set of cross-references betweenits lexical entries and the information provided in another part of the entry, other entries or other sections within the dictionary.
In this regard, the two main functions of cross-references and, therefore, of the mesotructure of dictionaries are to help their users to
• locate information in the various parts of the dictionary, and
• become aware of the different ways words relate to each other (something that may
go unnoticed in alphabetical macrostructures).
Consider the following examples from a Spanish and an English dictionary:
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Sida (Acrуn. De sнndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida).
m. Med. Enfermedad viral consistente en la ausencia de respuesta inmunitaria (consulte secciуn Abreviaturas para mбs informaciуn).
tub noun [C] (container)
A large, round container with a flat base and an open top: Outside was a stone patio with tubs of flowering plants. → bathtub, vat
Dictionaries may present cross-references in different ways, among which the two most frequent concern language and symbols. In the first place, cross-references may be lexical or language-based indications in the form of directives (imperatives) such as consulte, see, look up, cf. or see also, as shown in the entry of sida from the DRAE. Visual or typographic cross-references include symbols such as arrows → (as in the definition of tub) or pointing fingers
C and font changes, typically, the use of bold face, italics and SMALL CAPITALS. This
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diversity of cross-references suggests that users must become familiarized with the conventions followed in their dictionary in order to make the most of it. Finally, in online dictionaries cross-references are not signalled, but are part of the hypertext system followed in its architecture (i.e. are provided by the entry’s system of links).
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2.4 Microstructure
The microstructure of a dictionary, also known as entry structure, refers to the way information about words or lemmas appears in entries, i.e. concerns their internal structure, and has to do with formal and content aspects since it has to do with typographical choices (e.g. fonts, sizes, symbols), and the quantity and quality of the information provided in
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entries. These things depend on the size, purpose and target users of dictionaries. In other words, the microstructure is the place where the differences among dictionaries may be best appreciated. The internal structure of entries is often indicated by means of typographical changes, e.g. the use of different typefaces, type size, upper- and lower-case, colour, etc.
Dictionary entries open with an entry word or headword, which is the word you look up in a dictionary (also known as lemma, as explained in Unit 3). This is followed by formal, semantic and pragmatic information of the headword. Typically, the microstructure of entries includes some or all of the following:
Formal aspects
• spelling
• pronunciation
• grammar (category, gender, number, inflection) semantic aspects
• definitions / explanations / interlinguistic equivalent(s)
• different senses of the entry word
• connotative / figurative meanings
• semantic relations (hyponyms, synonyms, antonyms)
• collocations, idioms, phrases
Pragmatic aspects
• register
• currency / dialectal variants / language variety additional information
• word’s etymology, usage notes, citations, illustrations
Look up favour, leaf, fox and tooth and describe the formal aspects provided in their entries
Look up maiden and describe the semantic aspects provided in its entry
Look up spectacles and glasses and describe the pragmatic aspects provided in their entries
The microstructure of dictionaries may follow several formats, among which three are the most frequent: condensed, expanded and illustrated. These are shown in the following examples:
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Condensed microstructure: headword and information are aligned
paisley /peyz-lee/ / 'peɪz li/ noun, plural paisleys. 1. A soft woollen fabric woven with a pattern of colourful and minutely detailed figures. 2. A shawl, scarf, tie, or other article made of this fabric. 3. A silk print simulating this fabric and weave. 4. Also called paisley print. A pattern resembling the design or figure on this fabric or material. adjective 5. Made of paisley: a paisley shawl. 6. Having the pattern of a paisley.
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