Indicative mood(просто речення)
Grammatical categorization of numerals. Numeral is a member of a word class characterized by the designation of numbers; some examples are the English word 'two' and the compound 'seventy-seventh'. Numerals function most typically as an adjective or a pronoun and express numbers and relations to numbers for example: quantity, sequence, frequency, or fraction. Numerals in English is a part of speech that defines the number or the order of items. There are simple numerals (1-12), derivative numerals (13-19) and composite numerals (for example: 21, 67, 147). There are cardinal and ordinal numerals in the English language. 1) Cardinal numerals show the number of certain items. They correspond to the interrogative word “How many?” 2) Ordinal numerals are used to show the order of items. They correspond to the question starting with the word “Which?” Example: Such words as “a hundred”, “a thousand” and “a million” are nouns, not numerals. If these words are used in a singular form, they always go with the indefinite article “a” or the numeral “one”. General semantics: – Cardinal Numerals express the idea of an abstract number; – Ordinal Numerals express the idea of the order of things in succession. o Morphologically unchangeable = have no formal morphological markers ! Cardinal Numerals should not be confused with Nouns with numerical meaning o Syntactic functions: – the Attribute: ) in preposition to a noun; b) in postposition to some nouns: Cardinal Numerals in postposition to nouns which denote items within a set of things; Ordinal Numerals in postposition to certain proper names (e.g. dynasties); – if they are used as Noun-substitutes they can function as: – Subject; – Object; – Predicative; – Adverbial of time. A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For example,instead of saying John is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of the noun John and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun. This chapter is about the kind of pronoun called a personal pronoun because it often refers to a person. Like nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have singular and plural forms (I-we, he-they). Unlike nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have different forms for masculine/male, feminine/female and neuter (he-she-it). Person is used here as a grammar word and means: 1st person or the self (I, me, we), 2nd person or the person spoken to (you), 3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).
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Classes of pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns These pronouns are used to demonstrate (or indicate). This, that, these and those.
Indefinite Pronounsindefinite pronouns are used for non-specific things. This is the largest group of pronouns. All, some, any, several, anyone, nobody, each, both, few, either, none, one and no one are the most common.
Interrogative Pronouns
These pronouns are used in questions. Who, which, what, where and how
Personal PronounsThe personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and who.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. My, your, his, her, its, our and their
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to add more information to a sentence. Which, that, who (including whom and whose) and where
Absolute Possessive Pronouns
These pronouns also show possession. Mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs
An adverb is a part of speech used to describe a verb, adjective, clause, or another adverb. It simply tells the readers how, where, when, or the degree at which something was done.
There are two main categories of adverb:
· Adverbs related to or derived from adjectives or prepositions
· Adverbs unrelated to adjectives or prepositions.
Category includes adverbs of four main types: time, place, manner and degree.
Category 1 :
Time ( duration, sequence) : presently, previously, fast,
Place (position or direction) : locally, closely, upwards, nearby
Manner : Quickly, easily, consequently
Degree: Extremely, generally, highly, nearly
Category 2 :
Time ( duration, sequence) : already, soon, tomorrow, next
Place (position or direction) : Here, there, somewhere, away
Manner : too, thus, therefore
Degree: very, quite,
Functionalclassification of verbs. According to their functional significance verbs can be notional (with the full lexical meaning), semi-notional (modal verbs, link-verbs), auxiliaries.
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Auxiliary verbs are used as purely grammatical means to form analytical forms of the verb;
The grammatical function of link-verbs is realized within compound nominal predicates where link-verbs indicate a relation between an entity and its quality. It should be noted that link-verbs are also characterized by a somewhat weakened lexical meaning. For example, such link-verbs as to be, to keep, to remain denote preservation of some quality; the verbs to become, to get, to turn, to go denote some changes that an entity undergoes: cf. His hair is grey vs His hair goes grey.
Modal verbs express attitude or relation of the agent to the action. This relation – possibility, obligation, volition, prohibition, permission, etc. – is a grammatical meaning of modal verbs.
Semantic features of the verb. The verb possesses the grammatical meaning of verbiality - the ability to denote a process developing in time. This meaning is inherent not only in the verbs denoting processes, but also in those denoting states, forms of existence, evaluations, etc.
Morphological features of the verb. The verb possesses the following grammatical categories: tense, aspect, voice, mood, person, number, finitude and phase. The common categories for finite and non-finite forms are voice, aspect, phase and finitude. The grammatical categories of the English verb find their expression in synthetical and analytical forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are grammatical affixes, inner inflexionand function words. Some categories have only synthetical forms (person, number), others - only analytical (voice). There are also categories expressed by both synthetical and analytical forms (mood, tense, aspect).
Finite and non-finite forms.
Verbs which have the past or the present form are called FINITE verbs. Verbs in any other form (infinitive, -ing, or -ed) are called NONFINITE verbs. This means that verbs with tense are finite, and verbs without tense are nonfinite. The distinction between finite and nonfinite verbs is a very important one in grammar, since it affects how verbs behave in sentences.
Combinability of verbs; a verb can be associated with nouns (noun-equivalents) denoting the doer (agent) and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb; it is regularly modified by adverbs.
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E.g. They continued their own occupations: a woman ironing, a girl sewing, the old lady looking at her feet, and the dog watching the cat closely. (Green). The combinability of verbs is closely linked with its lexico-grammatical meaning. Denoting an action, the verb is naturally associated with nouns and noun-equivalents indicating the doer or the subject of the action.E. g. В i r d s fly. He was asked by the teacher. I heard of Т о т ‘s coming tonight
The category of tense
The category of tense is a verbal category that reflects the objective category of time. The essential characteristic of the category of tense is that it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of the utterance (the time of the utterance being "now" or the present moment). The tense category is realized through the oppositions. The binary principle of oppositions remains the basic one in the correlation of the forms that represent the grammatical category of tense. The present moment is the main temporal plane of verbal actions. Therefore, the temporal dichotomy may be illustrated by the following graphic representation (the arrows show the binary opposition)
Generally speaking, the major tense-distinction in English is undoubtedly that which is traditionally described as an opposition of past::present. But this is best regarded as a contrast of past:: non-past. Quite a lot of scholars do not recognize the existence of future tenses, because what is described as the 'future' tense in English is realized by means of auxiliary verbs will and shall. Although it is undeniable (неоспоримый) that will and shall occur in many sentences that refer to the future, they also occur in sentences that do not. And they do not necessarily occur in sentences with a future time reference. That is why future tenses are often treated as partly modal.
Category of voice
Voice is a property of transitive verbs*, and expresses the relationship of the subject to the action. Voice has two values:
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- active: the subject does the action
- passive: the subject receives the action
The aspect of the verb
The aspect of a verb is determined by whether the action is on going or completed.
The four aspects are:
· Simple Aspect (also known as the indefinite aspect)
· Perfect Aspect (also known as the complete aspect)
· Progressive Aspect (also known as the continuing aspect)
· Perfect Progressive Aspect
The category of mood
Indicative mood(просто речення)
The indicative mood is used to make factual statements, ask questions, or express opinions as if they were facts. Any verb tense may be deployed in the indicative mood.
Imperative mood(наказ)
A sentence in the imperative mood expresses commands or requests. It indicates that the speaker desires for the action expressed in the sentence to take place.
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